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Farmer^s  LAbrary,   Vol.  HI. 


COMPLETE    FARMER 


RURAL    ECONOMIST 


CONTAINING 


A  COMPENDIOUS  EPITOME  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  BRANCHES 
OF  AGRICULTURAL  AND  RURAL  ECONOMY. 


By    THOMAS     G.    FESSENDEN, 

EDITOR   OP   "the    new    ENGLAND    FARMER." 


Agriculture  is  the  art  of  arts  :  without  it,  man  must  be  a  savage,  and  the  world  a  wilderne 

THIRD    EDITION, 
REVISED,  IMPROVED,  AND  ENLARGED. 


BOSTON : 

AMERICAN    STATIONERS'   COMPANY. 
J.   B.   RUSSELL. 

1838. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1837, 

By  Thomas  G.  Fessenden, 

in  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  District  of  Massachusetts 


CAMBRIDGE: 

STEREOTYPED    AND    PRINTED    BY 

FOLSOM,     WELLS,     AND     THUKSTON 

PBlNTEnS  TO  THE   UNIVERSITY. 


PREFACE. 


In  the  following  pages,  the  object  of  the  writer  is  to  give  brief,  but  it 
is  hoped  perspicuous  and  practical  sketches  of  some  important  improve- 
ments in  modern  husbandry.  In  attempting  to  carry  this  design  into 
effect,  it  has  been  his  intention  to  insert  no  matter  which  is  merely  con- 
jectural or  speculative ;  to  give  place  to  nothing  not  worth  the  attention 
of  the  person  whose  livelihood  depends  on  his  pursuits  as  a  cultivator ; 
and  who  has  neither  time  nor  money  to  devote  to  such  books  as  are  expen- 
sive, voluminous,  and  foreign  or  remotely  related  to  available  improve- 
ments in  husbandry. 

With  this  view,  the  author  has  collected  and  generally  abridged,  from 
the  sources  which  his  occupation  as  editor  of  the  New  England  Farmer 
has  made  it  his  duty  as  well  as  his  pleasure  to  explore,  the  materials  of 
the  little  work  now  submitted.  He  does  not  pretend  to  have  taken  a 
wide  survey  of  the  field  of  husbandry,  much  less,  in  this  tract,  to  have 
given  a  plan  of  the  whole  premises.  But  he  hopes  his  observations, 
though  limited,  may  prove  serviceable  so  far  as  they  extend.  Agricul- 
ture is  the  most  extensive  as  well  as  the  most  useful  of  the  sciences  ;  and 
as  an  art  may  be  compared  to  the  ocean,  in  which  every  stream  of  im- 
provement in  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  mankind  pours  its  con- 
tribution. Still,  it  is  not  necessary  to  circumnavigate  the  whole  of  this 
world  of  waters  in  order  to  make  voyages  of  valuable  discovery.  We 
cannot  dip  an  oar  nor  launch  a  skiff  in  or  upon  the  bosom  of  this  great 
deep,  without  finding  something  to  reward  our  adventures. 

Agriculture,  although  the  most  ancient  of  the  arts,  not  only  coeval 
with,  but  in  truth  the  sun  from  which  emanated  the  dawn  of  civilization, 
is,  nevertheless,  the  art  in  which  the  beneficial  effects  of  modern  im- 
provement are  most  strikingly  exemplified.  Let  us  contrast  its  former 
with  its  present  condition  in  Great  Britain. 

According  to  English  laws  in  force  from  the  fifth  to  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, "  all  the  cattle  of  a  village,  though  belonging  to  different  owners, 
were  pastured  together  in  one  herd,  under  the  direction  of  one  person, 
(with  proper  assistants,)  whose  oath  in  all  disputes  about  the  cattle  was 
decisive.  Their  ploughs  seem  to  have  been  very  slight  and  inartificial; 
for  it  was  enacted,  that  no  man  should  undertake  to  guide  a  plough  who 
could  not  make  one  ;  and  that  the  driver  should  make  the  ropes  with 
which  it  was  drawn  of  twisted  willows.  But  slight  as  tiiese  ploughs 
were,  it  was  usual  for  six  or  eight  persons  to  form  themselves  into  a 
society  for  fitting  out  one  of  them,  and  providing  it  with  oxen,  and 


94759 


IV  PREFACE. 

every  thing  necessary  for  ploughing ;  and  many  minute  and  curious 
laws  were  made  for  the  regulation  ofsuch  societies.  This  is  a  sufficient 
proof  both  of  the  poverty  of  the  husbandman  and  the  imperfect  state  of 
agriculture  among  the  ancient  Britons  of  this  period."* 

"  By  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  who  flourished  in  the 
end  of  the  seventh  and  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  a  farm  consist- 
ing of  ten  hides  or  ploughlands  was  to  pay  the  following  rent,  viz. :  ten 
casks  of  honey,  three  hundred  loaves  of  bread,  twelve  casks  of  strong 
ale,  two  oxen,  ten  wethers,  ten  geese,  twenty  hens,  ten  cheeses,  one 
cask  of  butter,  five  salmon,  twenty  pounds  of  forage,  and  one  hundred 
eels."t  Such  has  been  the  state  of  tillage  in  that  country  which  is  now 
eulogized  as  the  garden  of  Europe  ! 

Improvements  in  breeds  of  domestic  animals  by  judicious  crosses,  and 
propagating  from  the  best  specimens  of  their  species,  as  well  as  plentiful 
and  suitable  feeding,  have  advanced  the  state  of  agriculture  more  than 
the  most  sanguine  advocate  for  scientific  husbandry  could  have  antici- 
pated. To  say  nothing  of  the  wonders  effected  by  Bakewell  and  other 
eminent  improvers  in  that  department  of  husbandry,  we  will  glance  at 
the  comparative  stales  of  the  London  cattle  market  at  a  distant  and  a 
less  remote  period.  An  English  writer  states,  that  "  about  the  year  1700, 
the  average  weight  of  oxen  killed  for  the  London  market  was  three 
hundred  and  seventy  pounds  ;  of  calves,  fifty  pounds;  of  sheep,  twenty- 
eight  pounds ;  and  of  lambs,  eighteen  pounds.  The  average  weight  at 
present  (about  the  close  of  the  century)  is,  of  oxen,  eight  hundred 
pounds;  calves,  one  hundred  and  forty  pounds;  sheep,  eighty  pounds; 
and  lambs,  fifty  pounds."  It  would  be  a  curious  item  in  our  agricultural 
knowledge,  if  information,  similar  to  what  we  have  quoted,  relative  to 
Boston  and  other  American  markets  were  correctly  ascertained,  faithfully 
recorded,  and  from  time  to  time  laid  before  the  public.  We  should  ad- 
vance with  more  celerity  and  alacrity  along  the  highway  of  improve- 
ment, if  we  had  means  of  marking  and  giving  comparative  views  of  the 
progress  which  we  have  made  and  are  making. 

Some  idea  of  the  present  state  of  agriculture  in  England  may  be 
gathered  from  the  following  extract  from  the  journal  of  a  traveller : 
"  Every  spot  of  ground  capable  of  being  cultivated  is  improved.  Wher- 
ever I  have  been,  the  fields  are  generally  small,  inclosed  by  hedges,  and 
made  perfectly  smooth  by  means  of  cast  iron  rollers.  Numerous  trees 
are  left  to  grow  around  the  hedges,  and  scattered  over  the  fields.  These 
are  so  nicely  trimmed  as  to  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  country. 
Not  a  weed  is  suffered  to  grow.  The  crops  all  look  well,  and  are  much 
more  productive  than  ours.  The  cattle  and  sheep  feed  on  grass  up  to 
their  knees,  and  look,  as  we  should  say,  fit  to  kill.  The  slight  inclo- 
sures  that  keep  them  in  their  pastures  would  be  but  a  poor  protection 
against  our  lean,  half-fed,  unruly  animals.  Here  the  cattle  have  no 
need  to  break  fences.  They  have  food  sufficient  within  their  own  do- 
mains. I  came  here  under  the  impression  that  this  country  was  bare  of 
trees.  On  the  contrary,  I  find  it  better  stocked  in  this  respect  than  the 
thick  settlements  of  our  own  country.  We  wantonly  destroy  trees  as  if 
they  were  of  no  value :  here  they  are  planted  and  nursed  with  as  much 
care  as  if  they  bore  choice  fruit." 

Although  we  think  the  writer  last  quoted  has  somewhat  exaggerated 
the  defects  of  American  husbandry,  we  must  allow,  that  his  strictures 
are  not  so  destitute  of  some  foundation  in  reality  as  could  be  wished. 

*  London's  Encyc.  Agr.  p.  36.  t  Wilkin's  Leges  Saxon.,  p.  25. 


PREFACE.  V 

We,  however,  have  of  late  improved  and  are  improving  in  every  branch 
of  culture,  and  bid  fair  soon  to  possess  a  system  of  agriculture  as  well 
adapted  to  our  climate  and  circumstances,  as  Great  Britain,  or  even 
Flanders,  can  boast  of  at  present.  Our  fields  may  have  a  less  imposing 
appearance,  and  our  products  may  be  less  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  land  we  have  under  cultivation,  and  still  our  tillage  be  on  the  whole 
judicious.  The  agricultural  implements  and  farming  operations  of  the 
United  States  are  in  most  particulars  very  similar  to  those  of  Great 
Britain.  Circumstances  and  climate,  however,  require  variations,  which 
the  sagacity  of  the  American  cultivator  will  lead  him  to  adopt,  often  in 
contradiction  to  the  opinions  of  those  who  understand  the  science  better 
than  the  practice  of  husbandry.  In  Europe  land  is  dear  and  labor  cheap  ; 
but  in  the  United  States  the  reverse  is  the  case.  The  European  culti- 
vator is  led  by  a  regard  to  his  own  interest  to  endeavour  to  make  the  most 
of  his  land ;  the  American  has  the  same  inducement  to  make  the  most  of 
his  labor.  Perhaps,  however,  this  principle,  in  this  countr}',  is  generally 
carried  to  an  unprofitable  extreme,  and  our  farmers  would  derive  more 
benefit  from  their  labor,  as  well  as  their  land,  if  they  selected  such  parts 
of  their  possessions  as  they  can  afford  to  till  thoroughly,  and  to  manure 
abundantly.  A  man  may  possess  a  large  estate  in  lands,  without  being 
called  on  by  good  husbandry  to  hack  and  scratch  over  the  whole  as  evi- 
dence of  his  title.  He  may  cultivate  well  those  parts  which  are  naturally 
most  fertile,  and  suffer  the  rest  to  remain  woodland,  or,  having  cleared  a 
part,  lay  it  down  to  permanent  pasture  ;  which  will  yield  him  an  annual 
profit,  without  requiring  much  labor. 

The  climate  and  soil  of  the  United  States  are  well  adapted  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  Indian  corn,  a  very  valuable  vegetable,  which  cannot  be 
grown  to  advantage  in  Great  Britain.  This  entirely  and  very  advanta- 
geously supersedes  the  field  culture  of  the  horse  bean  {ricia  faba),  one 
of  the  most  common  fallow  crops  in  that  island.  Root-lnisbaudrtj,  or  the 
raising  of  roots  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  cattle,  is,  however,  of  less  im- 
portance in  the  United  States  than  in  Great  Britain.  The  winters  are  so 
severe,  that  turnips  can  rarely  be  eaten  by  stock  on  the  ground  where 
they  grow,  and  all  sorts  of  roots  are  with  more  difficulty  preserved  and 
dealt  out  to  stock  in  this  country  than  in  those  which  possess  a  more 
mild  and  equable  climate.  Hay  is  more  easily  made  in  the  United 
States  than  in  Great  Britain,  owing  to  the  season  for  hay-making  being 
more  dry,  and  the  sun  more  powerful  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter 
country.  There  are  many  other  circumstances  which  favor  the  American 
farmer,  and  render  his  situation  more  eligible  than  that  of  those  who 
pursue  the  same  occupation  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  He  is  generally 
the  owner,  as  well  as  the  occupier,  of  the  soil  which  he  cultivates ;  is 
not  burdened  with  tithes ;  his  taxes  are  light ;  and  the  product  of  his  la- 
bors will  command  more  of  the  necessaries,  comforts,  and  innocent  luxu- 
ries of  life,  than  similar  efforts  would  procure  in  any  other  part  of  the 
globe. 

Not  only  have  the  inducements  to  agricultural  improvements  in  the 
United  States  been  powerful,  but  of  late  a  corresponding  effect  has  been 
the  result.  We  cannot  better  make  this  evident,  than  by  a  quotation 
from  "Remarks  of  the  i?ep.  M.  Allen,  of  Peinbrolie,  County  of  Plymouth, 
State  of  Massachusetts ,  in  the  Legislature  of  that  State,  on  a  proposition  to 
renew  an  Jlct  for  the  Encoxiragement  of  Agriculture  and  Manufactures," 
published  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  XII.  p.  298. 

"  It  has  already  been  suggested,  that  the  soil  of  the  county  from  which 
I  came  is  not  the  most  favorable  for  agricultural  pursuits.  The  expense 
of  cultivation  there  is  thought  by  some  to  exceed  the  amount  to  be  de- 


\l  PREFACE. 

rived  from  it.  Tliis  was  the  prevalent  opinion  before  the  introduction  of 
modern  improvements.  The  operations  of  an  Agricultural  Society 
have  proved,  that  labor  and  skill  can  make  even  despised  soils  productive. 
I  suppose  that  ten  bushels  of  rye  to  the  acre,  twenty  of  Indian  corn,  one 
ton  of  English  hay,  and  two  hundred  bushels  of  potatoes,  were  formerly 
considered  as  average  crops.  Since  premiums  have  been  offered,  we 
have  claims  for  from  forty  to  fifty  bushels  of  rye,  from  one  hundred  and 
fifteen  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  of  Indian  corn,  from  three  to  four 
tons  of  English  hay,  and  from  four  to  five  hundred  bushels  of  potatoes. 
Our  improvements  have  not  been  confined  to  single  acres;  in  several 
instances  the  products  of  entire  farms  have  been  more  than  quadrupled.'' 

The  advances  of  agriculture  of  late  years  have  not  been  uniform,  but 
accelerated ;  its  progress  has  been  in  what  mathematicians  would  call  a 
geometrical  ratio.  Every  step  has  furnished  means  for  quickening  the 
pace  and  extending  the  reach  of  the  next  step,  and  every  path  has  led 
to  a  longer  and  wider  avenue  of  improvement.  The  time  may  come,  in 
which  science  may  impress  into  the  service  of  the  cultivator  every  ele- 
ment or  substance  which  constitutes  the  globe  we  inhabit,  —  the  world 
of  matter  become  completely  subservient  to  the  world  of  mind.  Then 
and  not  till  then  will  agriculture  have  attained  the  utmost  degree  of  per- 
fection of  which  it  is  capable. 

T.  G.  Fessenden. 

Boston,  May,  1834. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Agricultural  Implements,     -    -    .    -  313 
Aphis,  or  Plant  Louse,     -----  309 

Apple-tree  Borer,    -------  312 

Ashes  as  Manure,    -------  203 

Barley,      -    -    r 134 

harvesting   of,    -    -    -    136,  281 

Barns, 44,  71 

Barn-yards,    ---------74 

Beans, 152 

Beets,  field  cultivation  and  preserva- 
tion of, 243  to  254 

Birds,  the  folly  and  criminality  of  de- 
stroying,     -    -    -     - 292 

Bones,  use  of  for  manure,     -     -    -    -  203 

Buckwheat, 1-41 

Bushes,  how  to  extirpate,     -     -     -     -  296 

Buuer,  how  made  and  preserved,   -    -    79 

llDW  made  in  winter,      -     .    -     87 

Calves,        54  to  61 

Canker-worm,    --------  304 

Caterpillar, 307 

Cattle,  -     -    -     - 36 

Chaff- cutting, 43 

Chaff-cutter, 316 

Cheese,  making, 88  to  92 

cleaning  of,    ------    90 

Stilton,  how  made,  -    -    -    -    90 

to  prevent  skippers  in,    -    -    90 

to  prevent  having  a  bad  flavor,  91 

Cheese  Presses,  --------  322 

Churn,  Gault's  Patent, 323 

Stone, 323 

Clover, 15 

on  making  into  hay,     -  275  to  279 

Colts, 64,   242 

Cotton, 263 

Coolung  Food  for  Cattle  and  Swine, 

-    -    -    49  to  54 

Cow-house, ---43 

Cows,    -----------38 

manner  of  milking,      -    -    -    38 
winter  food  for,  -----    41 

working  of,    - 42 

how  treated  when  about  to 
calve,    -------     -42 

how  dried  of  their  milk,  -    -    42 

Cultivators, 321 

Curculio, 308 

Curd  Mills, -  322 

Cut-worm, 311 

Dairy, 78 

Dirt  Scraper,  Davis's  Patent,    -    -    -  323 

Drains,  -     - 282 

Eggs,  how  to  choose  at  market,    -    -  291 


Ewes  and  Lambs,  -- 212 

Farmer's  Calendar,      ------  339 

Fences,      ----     ------  204 

Fiorin  Grass, ---18 

Flat-stalked  Meadow  Grass,    -    -    -    19 

Flax, .----99 

Floating  Fescue  Grass,  -----  19 
Food  fermented  for  Neat  Cattle,  -  -  46 
Fowls  and  Chickens,  to  fatten,  -    -    -  291 

Grain,    -- 25 

Grain  Cradles, 326 

Grasses,     ----------13 

proper  lime  for  sowing,  &c.,  22,23 

Gypsum, 190 

Harrow,  Chandler's  improved,  -    -    -  320 

Harvesting, -  279 

Oats, 281 

Hay-making, 275 

Hedges, 206 

Hemp, ---92 

Herd's  Grass,  or  Timothy,    -    -    -    -    18 

Hops, 143 

Horse,  ---- 230 

diseases  of,    -----    -  234 

stable  for, 236 

Horse  Rake, 327 

Indian  Corn,       ------    25  to  36 

hoeing  of,  in  dry  weather,  -  32 
planting  or  sowing  for  fodder,    34 

Insects, 302 

Irrigation,       ---------  297 

Lactometers,-    --------  322 

Lambs  and  Ewes,   ------     -  212 

Lice  on  Apple-trees,    ------  311 

Lime, 182 

Lucerne, --    16,19 

Mangel- Wurtzel, 243 

how  preserved,  -----  250 

Manures, 166 

liquid, 174 

for  grass  ground,  -  .  -  -  178 
how  made  from  swine,  -  -  181 
bones  useful  for,  -----  203 
articles  used  for,     -    -    -    -  203 

Marl, 196 

Meadow  Foxtail, 14 

Milk  for  Butter,  &c. 79 

Millet, 137 

Oats, 131 

harvesting  of,     :    -    -    -    -  281 

J.  Smith's  crop  of,  -    -    -    -  134 

Orchard  Grass,    --------14 

Oxen, ---61 

Pasture, 284 


vin 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Pasture  Grasses,  ....-.-21 
Pea, 147 

Insects  in,  and  diseases  of,  -  151 
Pickering's  Tree  Brushes,    -    -    -    -  321 

Plaster  of  Paris, 190 

Ploughing, 267 

mode  of,  by  E.  Phinnej',  Esq.  273 

Ploughs, 319 

Potatoes, 258 

Poultry, 289 

Pruning  Shears, 324 

Kice, 142 

Rough  Cock's  Foot,  or  Orchard  Grass,  14 

Ruta  Baga, 251 

Rye, 124 

Rye  Grass,     ---------15 

Sainfoin,     ----------17 

Scythes,  Scythe    Rifles,   Scythe 

Snathes, 324 

Seed  Sowers, 336 

Sheep,   208 

shearing  of,     ------  219 

disorders  of, 223 

Slug-worm,    --- 313 

Smooth-stalked  Meadow  Grass,    -    -    19 

Soils, 9 

Sows  devouriDg  their  Offspring,    -    -  163 


PAGE 

Stable  for  horses,    -------  236 

Straw  Cutters,    --------  316 

Striped   Bug, 314 

Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass,    -    -    -    14 

Swine, 155 

use  of  coal  in  fattening,  -    -  162 

Tall  Fescue  Grass,        15 

Tall  Oat  Grass, IS 

Threshjug  Machines,   ------  316 

Timothj-,  or  Herd's  Grass,   -    -    -    -     18 

Tobacco,     --.--.-.--  265 
Turnips,  English,     ..-.---  254 

Swedish, 252 

Upright  Bent  Grass 18 

Wheat, 107 

preparation  of  for  sowing,  -  112 
to  prevent  smut  in,  -  -  113,114 
use  of  lime  for,  -----  115 
how  to  obtain  new  varieties 

of, 118 

rust  or  mildew  in,  -  -  -  -  119 
the  kind  called  Black  Sea 

Wheat, 122 

Willis's  Seed  Sower, 336 

Wire-worm,   ---------  314 

Woodland, 301 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER. 


SOILS.  A  farmer  should  be  well  informed  of  the  nature 
of  soils,  and  of  the  various  plants  adapted  to  them.  Some 
useful  plants  flourish  best  in  what  is  called  poor  land  ;  and, 
if  cultivators  were  perfectly  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
adapting  plants  to  soils,  much  manure  might  be  saved,  which 
is  wasted  by  injudicious  and  improper  application. 

It  is  supposed  by  geologists  that  the  whole  of  this  earth 
originally  consisted  of  rocks,  of  various  sorts  or  combina- 
tions. These  rocks,  by  the  lapse  of  ages  and  exposure  to 
air  and  water,  became  disintegrated  or  worn  in  part  or  alto- 
gether to  fine  particles,  which  compose  what  are  called  earths 
or  soils.  These  soils  are  chiefly  silica  [sand  or  earth  of 
flints],  lime  [or  calcareous  earth],  alumina  [clay],  and  mag- 
nesia [a  mineral  substance].  With  these  are  blended  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  matters  in  a  decomposed  or  decomposing 
state,  and  saline,  acid,  or  alkaline  combinations. 

Plants  are  the  most  certain  indicators  of  the  nature  of  a 
soil  ;  for,  while  no  practical  cultivator  would  buy  or  under- 
take to  till  land,  of  which  he  knew  only  the  results  of  chemi- 
cal analysis,  yet  every  farmer  and  gardener,  who  knew  the 
timber  and  plants  a  soil  spontaneously  produced,  would  at 
once  be  able  to  decide  on  its  value  for  cultivation. 

It  was  a  maxim  of  Kliyogg,  a  famous  philosophical  farmer 
of  Switzerland,  "that  every  species  of  earth  may  be  instru- 
mental to  the  improvement  of  another  of  opposite  qualities." 
All  sands  are  hot  and  dry,  —  all  clays,  cold  and  wet  ;  and, 
therefore,  the  manuring  sandy  lands  with  clay,  or  clay  lands 
with  sand,  is  best  for  grain  and   pulse.     But  it  is  not  the 


D.  H.  HJLL  LIBRARY 

North  Carolina  State  Coilege 


10  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

natural  soil  only  that  the  farmer  ought  to  consider,  but  the 
depth  of  it,  and  what  lies  immediately  underneath  it.  For 
if  the  richest  soil  is  only  seven  or  eight  inches  deep,  and 
lies  on  a  cold,  wet  clay  or  stone,  it  will  not  be  so  fruitful  as 
leaner  soils,  that  lie  on  a  better  under  stratum.  Gravel  is, 
perhaps,  the  best  under  stratum  to  make  the  land  prolific. 

The  best  loams  and  natural  earths  are  of  a  bright  brown, 
or  hazel  color.  Hence,  they  are  called  hazel  loams.  They 
cut  smooth  and  tolerably  easy,  without  clinging  to  the  spade 
or  ploughshare  ;  are  light,  friable,  and  fall  into  small  clods 
without  chapping  or  cracking  in  dry  weather,  or  turning 
into  mortar  when  wet.  Dark  gray  and  russet  moulds  are 
accounted  the  next  best.  The  worst  of  all,  are  the  light 
and  dark  ash  colored.  The  goodness  of  land  may  also  be 
very  well  judged  of  by  the  smell  and  the  touch.  The  best 
emits  a  fresh,  pleasant  scent  on  being  dug  or  ploughed  up, 
especially  after  rain  ;  and,  being  a  just  proportion  of  sand 
and  clay  intimately  blended,  will  not  stick  much  to  the  fin- 
gers on  handling.  But  all  soils,  however  good,  may  be  im- 
poverished, and  even  worn  out,  by  successive  crops  without 
rest,  especially  if  the  ploughings  are  not  very  frequently  re- 
peated before  the  seed  is  sown. 

If  we  examine  tracts  of  land  which  have  not  been  culti- 
vated, we  find  nature  has  adapted  different  kinds  of  plants  to 
most  of  the  distinguishable  varieties  of  soils  ;  and  though 
some  belonging  to  one  may  for  some  cause  or  other  be  found 
on  lands  of  a  different  quality,  they  seldom  thrive,  or  perfect 
their  seeds  so  as  to  become  general.  The  great  care  of  the 
farmer  ought,  therefore,  to  be,  by  proper  mixtures,  to  reduce 
his  land  to  that  state  and  temperament,  in  which  the  extremes 
of  hot  and  cold,  wet  and  dry,  are  best  corrected  by  each 
other  ;  to  give  them  every  possible  advantage  flowing  from 
the  benign  influences  of  sun  and  air  ;  and  to  adopt  such 
kinds  of  plants  as  they  afford  in  this  state  the  greatest  nour- 
ishment to  ;  and  to  renew  their  fertility  by  a  judicious  allow- 
ance of  the  most  proper  manures.  Where  these  things  are 
done,  there  are  few  spots  so  unfriendly  to  cultivation  as  not 
to  repay  his  expenses  and  labor  with  a  plentiful  increase. 
But  without  these,  the  best  tracts  of  land  will  in  time  be- 
come a  barren  waste,  or  produce  little  but  woods. 

The  color  of  soils  is  important.  "  The  Farmer's  Journal  " 
observes,  coal  ashes  were  sprinkled  over  half  the  surface  of 
beds,  sown  with  peas,  beans,  &.C.,  and  on  these  the  plants 
invariably  appeared  above  ground  two  or  three  days  earlier. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  U 

obviously  on  account  of  the  increased  warmth  ;  it  being  a 
well-known  fact,  that  dark-colored  bodies  absorb  caloric 
more  readily,  and  in  larger  proportions  than  those  of  a 
lighter  hue. 

Soils  which  absorb  the  most  moisture  are  the  most  fertile. 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy  observed,  "I  have  compared  the  ab- 
sorbent powers  of  many  soils  with  respect  to  atmospheric 
moisture,  and  I  have  always  found  it  greatest  in  the  most 
fertile  soils  ;  so  that  it  affords  one  method  of  judging  of  the 
productiveness  of  land." 

The  methods  of  improving  soils  are  too  numerous  to  be 
here  fully  specified.  We  will,  however,  quote  one  mode  of 
restoring  worn-out  fields  to  the  fertility  of  new  lands,  or 
lands  lately  cleared  from  their  aboriginal  growth  of  timber, 
quoted  from  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Mixture  of  Soils,"  for 
which  the  author,  the  Rev.  Morrel  Allen,  of  Pembroke, 
Massachusetts,  was  awarded  a  premium  by  the  Plymouth 
County  Agricultural  Society, 

"Particles  in  a  soil,  which  had  long  been  in  contact,  and, 
in  consequence  of  long  connexion,  lost  much  of  the  energy 
of  their  action  on  plants,  are  separated  in  mixing  soils,  placed 
in  new  connexions,  and  act  with  renewed  vigor.  But  the 
most  permanent  and  best  effects  are  always  expected  from 
the  mixture  of  soils  of  different  qualities.  When  the  object 
is  to  produce  as  much  immediate  influence  as  possible, 
merely  to  assist  one  short  rotation  of  crops,  to  have  the  ap- 
plication we  make  act  chiefly  as  manure,  then  we  may  take 
our  materials  from  any  situation  where  we  know  vegetable 
substances  have  fallen  and  decayed. 

"We  may  go  into  forests,  and  in  certain  stages  of  the 
growth  of  the  wood,  without  any  perceptible  injury,  skim 
the  surface  of  the  whole  lot.  This  soil  of  the  woods,  carried 
in  sufficiently  large  quantities  on  to  old  fields,  will  restore 
them  to  original  productiveness.  And  this  will  sometimes 
prove  an  inexhaustible  resource  for  renewing  old  fields  ;  for 
as  often  as  the  fields  decline,  the  soil  in  the  wood  lot  will  be 
again  renewed  and  fit  to  remove.  For  the  same  purposes 
the  earth  should  be  carried  from  the  sides  of  walls  and  fen- 
ces, where  the  leaves  have  been  lodged  from  the  forests.  It 
should  also  be  carried  from  hollows  and  temporary  ponds, 
which  in  certain  seasons  of  the  year  become  dry,  and  afford 
immense  quantities  of  vegetable  matter  in  different  stages 
of  decomposition,  and  suitable  to  apply  to  any  kind  of  soil. 
"  Where  streams  of  water  occasionally  overflow  the  banks, 


12  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

an  abundance  of  vegetable  and  earthy  matter  is  lodged  on 
the  meadows,  which  in  many  cases,  especially  where  there 
is  not  much  extent  of  meadow  to  receive  the  substances 
conveyed  by  the  stream,  it  is  prudent  to  remove  on  to  higher 
land.  It  will  there  act  as  manure,  and  at  the  same  time 
gradually  alter  the  texture  of  the  soil,  rendermg  it  more  re- 
tentive of  dew  and  rain,  and  easily  penetrated  by  the  fibrous 
roots  of  plants.  Of  the  value  of  those  substances  which 
are  carried  in  streams  of  water  to  enrich  soils,  we  have  the 
most  convincing  proof  in  the  unexampled  productiveness  of 
interval  lands.  It  is  not  exclusively  the  vegetable  substan- 
ces carried  on  to  these  lands  which  make  them  so  astonish- 
ingly productive  ;  there  is  a  portion  of  every  kind  of  soil 
existing  in  the  surrounding  country  annually  carried  on  with 
the  vegetable  substances.  Intervals  are  composed  of  every 
sort  of  earth  the  water  can  reach  and  remove.  This  cir- 
cumstance may  properly  encourage  the  mixtures  of  many 
kinds  of  earth,  even  when  there  is  no  particular  evidence 
that  each  kind  is  especially  adapted  to  remedy  any  deficien- 
cy in  the  soil  which  we  would  improve.  There  is  less  haz- 
ard in  administering  medicines  in  great  profusion  to  cure 
diseases  in  the  soil,  than  in  the  human  body.  In  stepping 
out  of  the  beaten  path  of  habitual  practice,  and  calling  at- 
tention to  experiments,  which  to  some  may  look  very  simple, 
and  to  others  very  absurd,  we  may  become  instrumental  in 
the  discovery  of  highly  important  truths." 

It  will  not  do,  however,  to  spread  pond  mud  directly  on 
grass  land  or  on  arable  ground.  An  experienced  farmer  in- 
forms us,  that  he  once  injured  a  piece  of  grass  land  by 
spreading  pond  mud  upon  it  without  preparation.  It  should 
be  mi.xed  with  lime  and  warmer  manure,  and  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  or  put  into  the  barn-yard  to  be  trodden  upon 
by  cattle. 

Arthur  Young  lays  it  down  as  a  maxim,  that  a  strong, 
harsh,  tenacious  clay,  though  it  will  yield  great  crops  of 
wheat,  is  yet  managed  at  so  heavy  expense,  that  it  is  usually 
let  for  more  than  it  is  worth.  Much  money  is  not  made  on 
such  land.  The  very  contrary  soil,  a  light,  poor,  dry  sand, 
is  very  often,  indeed,  in  the  occupation  of  men  who  have 
made  fortunes.  Some  permanent  manure  is  usually  below 
the  surface,  which  anwsers  well  to  carry  on  ;  and  sheep,  the 
common  stock  of  such  soils,  is  the  most  profitable  sort  he 
can  depend  on. 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  13 

GRASSES.  The  limits  of  our  plan  will  oblige  as  in  this, 
as  in  many  other  articles,  to  omit,  or  give  but  brief  sketches 
of,  subjects  which  might  be  profitably  attended  to  in  more 
minute  detail. 

Grass  is  a  general  name  for  plants  used  in  feeding  cattle, 
in  a  green  or  dry  state,  for  hay  or  for  pasture. 

It  would  require  a  large  volume  to  describe  all  the  kinds 
of  grass  which  are  or  may  be  cultivated  in  the  United 
States.  Sir  John  Sinclair  observed,  ("Code  of  Agriculture," 
p.  219,)  that  there  are  in  all  two  hundred  and  fifteen  grasses, 
properly  so  called,  which  are  cuhivated  in  Great  Britain. 
The  Duke  of  Bedford  caused  a  series  of  experiments  to  be 
instituted  by  George  Sinclair,  to  try  the  comparative  merits 
and  value  of  a  number  of  these  grasses,  to  the  amount  of 
ninety-seven,  the  result  of  which  is  annexed  to  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy's  "Agricultural  Chemistry."  According  to  these  ex- 
periments, tall  fescue  grass  {festiica  elatior)  stands  highest  as 
to  the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  afforded  by  the  whole  crop, 
when  cut  at  the  time  of  flowering  ;  and  meadow  cat's-tail 
grass,  phleiim  pratense,  called  in  New  England  herd's  grass, 
and  timothy  grass  in  the  Southern  States,  affords  most  food 
when  cut  at  the  time  the  seed  is  ripe. 

The  following-  remarks  are  from  an  able  and  elaborate 
article  on  the  grasses,  written  by  Judge  Buel,  and  published 
in  "  The  American  Farmer  "  : 

"  I  have  found  in  our  publications  on  agriculture  very  lit- 
tle information  on  the  improvement  of  our  meadow  and  pas- 
ture grounds.  Indeed,  the  names  of  our  native  grasses  are 
scarcely  enumerated,  much  less  are  their  habits  described, 
or  their  relative  merits  for  hay  and  pasture  pointed  out,  in 
any  American  work  which  has  fallen  within  my  notice.  A 
considerable  portion  of  our  lands  are  unsuitable  for  the  sys- 
tem of  convertible  husbandry,  that  is,  an  alternation  of  grain 
and  grass  crops.  Of  this  description  are  our  stiff  clays, 
marshes,  and  swamps,  and  all  those  lands  in  which  tillage  is 
rendered  difficult  by  reason  of  hard  pan,  stones,  or  wetness. 
These  should  be  improved  as  permanent  meadows  and  pas- 
tures ;  and  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  the  farmer  to  know 
the  grasses  which  will  render  them  most  conducive  to  profit ; 
for  that  our  grass  grounds  are  as  susceptible  of  improvement 
as  our  tillage  grounds,  by  a  suitable  selection  of  seeds  and 
suitable  management,  must  be  apparent  to  every  reflecting 
mind.  The  improvement  and  productiveness  of  our  cattle 
and  sheep  husbandry,  which  at  this  time  deservedly  engage 


14  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

much   of  the   public    attention,    depend   materially  on    this 
branch  of  farming." 

After  adverting  to  the  sources  from  which  the  writer  de- 
rived most  of  his  information,  he  proceeds  : 

"  Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass.  This  is  a  grass  of  diminu- 
tive growth,  and  is  not  worth  cultivating  for  hay.  It  is 
nevertheless  considered  as  valuable  in  pasture  on  account  of 
its  affording  very  early  feed,  and  growing  quick  after  being 
cropped.  We  are  advised  by  Muhlenburg  that  it  delights 
in  moist  soils;  by  the  Bath  papers,  that  it  does  well  in  clay- 
ey loams;  and  by  Dickson,  that  it  grows  in  almost  any  soil, 
including  bogs  and  sands.  G.  Sinclair  says,  it  is  eaten  by 
oxen,  horses,  and  sheep,  though  not  so  freely  as  some  other 
grasses  are.  * 

"  Meadow  Fox  Tail  possesses  all  the  advantages  of  early 
growth  with  the  preceding,  and  is  much  more  abundant  in 
product  and  nutriment.  It  generally  constitutes  one  of  five 
or  six  kinds  which  are  sowed  together  by  the  English  far- 
mers for  pasture  ;  and  affords  withal  a  tolerable  crop  of  hay. 
It  does  best  in  moist  soils,  whether  loams,  clays,  or  reclaim- 
ed bogs.  Sheep  and  horses  have  a  better  relish  for  it,  says 
G.  Sinclair,  than  oxen. 

"  Rough  Cock's  Foot.  Dr.  Muhlenburg  and  T.  Cooper 
concur  in  opinion  that  this  is  the  orchard  grass  of  the  Uni- 
ted States.  In  England,  cock's  foot  is  taking  the  place  of 
rye  grass  with  clovers.  Arthur  Young  speaks  in  high  com- 
mendation of  it;  though  all  writers  concur  in  the  opinion, 
that  it  should  be  frequently  and  closely  cropped,  either  with 
the  scythe  or  cattle,  to  reap  the  full  benefit  of  its  great  mer- 
its. I  should  prefer  it  to  almost  every  other  grass  ;  and 
cows  are  very  fond  of  it.  Cooper  rates  it  above  timothy, 
and  says  it  is  gradually  taking  the  place  of  the  latter  among 
the  best  farmers  about  Philadelphia.  This  is  probably  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  it  is  earlier  than  timothy,  and  of  course 
more  suitable  to  cut  with  clover  for  hay.  Its  growth  is  early 
and  rapid,  after  it  has  been  cropped.  It  does  well  on  loams 
and  sands,  and  grows  well  in  shade. 

"  Colonel   Powel,   a  gentleman  who  combines   as   much 


*  Judge  Buel  does  not  seem  to  have  been  personally  acquainted  with  this 
invaluable  grass.  Its  proper  situation  is  high,  well-drained  meadows.  It 
constitutes,  in  such  meadows,  in  Massachusetts,  at  least  one  half  of  the  whole 
crop.  Its  chief  fault  is,  that  it  is  too  early  for  the  other  grasses,  but  it  aflForda 
a  second  and  even  third  crop  if  cut  early.  It  is  the  grass  which  gives  the 
finest  flavor  so  grateful  to  milch  cows. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  15 

science  with  judicious  practice,  especially  in  cattle  and  grass 
husbandry,  as  any  person  in  the  Union,  says,  '  I  have 
tried  orchard  grass  for  ten  years.  It  produces  more  pastu- 
rage than  any  artificial  grass  I  have  seen  in  America.'  Sow 
two  bushels  of  seed  to  an  acre. 

"  TaU  Oat  Grass.  Both  Arator  (Mr.  Taylor)  and  Dr. 
Muhlenburg  have  placed  this  at  the  head  of  their  lists  of 
grasses,  which  they  have  recommended  to  the  attention  of 
the  American  farmer.  The  latter  says,  it  is  of  all  others  the 
earliest  and  best  grass  for  green  fodder  and  hay.  The  doc- 
tor was,  probably,  not  apprized  of  its  deficiency  in  nutri- 
tive matter,  as  indicated  in  the  table.  It  possesses  the  ad- 
vantage of  early,  quick,  and  late  growth,  for  which  the 
cock's  foot  is  esteemed,  tillers  well,  and  is  admirably  calcu- 
lated for  pasture  grass  I  measured  some  on  the  20th  of 
June,  when  in  blossom,  when  it  should  be  cut  for  hay,  and 
found  it  four  and  a  half  feet  long.  The  latter  math  is  near- 
ly equal  in  weight,  and  superior  in  nutritious  matter  to  the 
seed  crop. 

"  Tall  Fescue,  although  a  native  grass,  has  not  fallen  under 
my  personal  observation.  It  stands  highest,  says  Davy, 
according  to  the  experiments  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  of  any 
grass,  properly  so  called,  as  to  the  quantity  of  nutritive  mat- 
ter afforded  by  the  whole  crop,  when  cut  at  the  time  of 
flowering  ;  and  meadow  cat's-tail  (timothy)  grass  affords 
most  food,  when  cut  at  the  time  the  seed  is  ripe.  It  grows 
naturally  in  wet  grounds,  in  bog  meadows,  and  on  the  sides 
of  ditches,  often  to  the  height  of  four  or  five  feet.  Our 
ignorance  of  agricultural  botany,  and  of  the  intrinsic  value 
of  this  grass,  can  alone  have  prevented  its  being  more  gen- 
erally known  and  cultivated.  It  must  be  very  valuable  for 
wet  grounds,  as,  from  its  rapid  growth,  it  is  calculated  to 
smother  or  keep  down  the  coarser  kinds,  which  naturally 
abound  in  these  situations. 

"  Rye  Grass  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Scotland  and  the 
north  of  England,  and,  where  cock's  foot  has  not  superseded 
it,  is  generally  mixed  with  clover  seeds.  It  is  rather  declin- 
ing in  public  estimation.  It  does  well  in  pasture;  and  as  it 
contains  much  nutriment,  is  considered  valuable  for  cows 
and  sheep.  Dicksoix  says,  it  does  best  in  rich,  moist  mea- 
dows.    Young  does  not  speak  well  of  it. 

"Red  Clover.  There  are  many  species  of  the  trifolium, 
and  several  varieties  of  the  red  clover.  Whether  the  kind 
we  generally  cultivate  is  the  pratense,  or  not,  I  am  unable  to 


16  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

determine.  The  character  of  red  clover  as  an  ameliorating 
fertilizing  crop,  is  too  generally  known  to  require  illustra- 
tion. It  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  permanent  grass 
lands  ;  though  it  yields  to  no  grass  for  alternating  with  grain 
in  convertible  husbandry.  It  formerly  w-as  as  indispensable 
in  a  course  of  crops  in  Norfolk,  England,  (which  has  been 
considered  preeminent  for  good  tillage,)  as  turnips  ;  and  the 
maxim  was,  and  still  is,  '  no  turnips,  no  crops.'  But  it  ap- 
pears from  Young's  survey  of  that  country,  that  it  cannot 
now  be  depended  on  oftener  than  once  in  from  eight  to 
twelve  years.  Trefoil,  white  clover,  cock's  foot,  rye  grass, 
&c.,  are  therefore  alternated  with  red  clover  in  the  grass 
years.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  that  neither  red  clover 
nor  other  grasses,  will  bear  repeating  for  a  course  of  years, 
upon  the  generality  of  soils.  They  exhaust  the  ground  of 
the  peculiar  nourishment  required  for  their  support.  In 
Great  Britain  white  clover,  trefoil,  rye  grass  or  cock's  foot, 
are  generally  sown  with  red  clover  seeds.  From  twenty  to 
thirty  pounds  of  seeds  are  sown  to  the  acre.  In  the  north- 
ern states,  timothy  is  generally  sown  with  clover;  though  the 
mixture  is  an  improper  one  for  hay;  for  the  clover  is  fit  for 
the  scythe  ten  or  fifteen  days  before  the  timothy  has  arrived 
to  maturity.  If  sown  alone,  from  eight  to  sixteen  pounds 
of  clover  seed  should  be  put  on  an  acre  ;  more  on  old  land 
than  on  new. 

"  White  or  Dutch  Clover  {trifolium  repens),  is  considered 
in  England  of  importance  to  husbandry,  if  we  are  to  judge 
from  the  great  quantity  of  seed  which  is  there  sown  annual- 
ly. With  us,  many  districts  produce  it  spontaneously  ;  but 
it  is  too  seldom  sown.  It  shrinks  greatly  in  drying,  and 
does  not  contain  as  much  nutritive  matter  as  red  clover  ;  yet 
its  value  as  a  pasture  grass  is  universally  admitted.  Its  in- 
crease is  very  much  facilitated  by  a  top  dressing  of  gypsum 
lime  or  ashes. 

"  Lucerne,  although  affording  much  more  green  food,  con- 
tains less  nutriment  in  a  single  crop  than  red  clover.  It 
must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind,  that  it  grows  much  quicker 
than  clover,  and  will  bear  cutting  twice  as  often.  In  tlie 
soiling  system,  an  acre  of  lucerne  will  keep  four  cattle  or 
horses  from  the  15th  of  May  to  the  1st  of  October.  I  cut 
a  piece  about  the  loth  of  May,  and  again  about  the  20th  of 
June,  to  feed  green,  and  then  ploughed  the  ground,  and 
cropped  it  with  ruta  baga,  which  yielded  sixteen  tons  to  the 
acre  of  roots,   as  fine  as   I   ever   saw.     Mr.  Fowell  (see 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  17 

Youno-'s  'Norfolk,'  p.  345)  derived  a  clear  profit  of  tltir- 
teen  pounds  seventeen  shillings  and  four-pence  per  acre  from 
his  lucerne,  fed  green  to  working  horses.  This  is  almost 
equal  to  sixty  dollars  the  acre.  An  idea  has  prevailed,  that 
it  will  not  thrive  in  this  latitude,  (42-3,)  but  the  experi- 
ments of  the  late  Chancellor  Livingston,  and  of  Le  Roy  de 
Chaumont,  prove  otherwise.  I  sowed  seed  in  1821,  at  the 
rate  of  six  pounds  the  acre,  with  barley.  It  has  stood  the 
winters  well,  much  better  than  clover  ;  and  has  been  in  a 
state  of  progressive  improvement.  Drought  has  not  affect- 
ed it.  The  plants  are  very  tender  the  first  year  ;  and  re- 
quire either  a  very  clean  tilth,  or  to  be  kept  free  from  weeds 
and  grass  with  a  hoe  the  first  year.  It  should  have  a  deep 
loam,  as  it  sends  down  tap  roots  five  or  six  feet  ;  and  it  is 
equally  necessary  that  the  ground  should  not  be  wet.  It 
may  be  sown  either  in  drills  or  broad-cast,  with  or  without 
grain.  Fifteen  pounds  of  seed  are  required  for  the  acre  if 
drilled,  and  twenty  is  not  too  much  if  sown  broad-cast.  To 
the  proprietor  of  a  dairy,  an  acre  or  two  of  lucerne  would 
be  valuable,  to  be  fed  to  his  cows  in  addition  to  ordinary 
pasture.* 

"  Long-rooted  Clover  is  a  native  of  Hungary,  and  I  do  not 
think  has  ever  found  its  way  across  the  Atlantic.  The  root 
is  biennial,  and  if  sown  in  the  fall,  lasts  only  during  the  next 
season.  It  penetrates  to  a  great  depth  in  the  ground,  and 
consequently  is  but  little  affected  by  drought.  It  therefore 
requires  a  deep  dry  soil.  The  product  of  this  grass,  when 
compared  to  others  that  are  allied  to  it  in  habit  and  place  of 
growth,  proves  greatly  superior.  It  affords  twice  the  weight 
of  grass,  and  more  than  double  the  nutritive  matter  that  is 
given  by  the  common  clover.  It  gives  abundance  of  seed  ; 
and,  says  G.  Sinclair,  if  the  ground  be  kept  free  of  weeds, 
it  sows  itself,  vegetates,  and  grows  rapidly,  without  cover- 
ing in,  or  any  operation  whatever.  Four  years  it  has  prop- 
agated itself  in  this  manner  on  the  space  of  ground  which  it 
now  occupies,  and  from  which  this  statement  of  its  compar- 
ative value  is  made.  This  species  would,  no  doubt,  prove  a 
valuable  acquisition  to  our  husbandry,  whether  we  consider 
its  value  for  green  food,  hay,  or  as  a  green  crop  to  be  turn- 
ed in  preparatory  to  grain. 

"  Sain   Foin   is    peculiarly  adapted   to    a   calcareous   or 

*  For  further  remarks  on  the  culture  of  lucerne,  see  "  The  New  England 
Farmer,"  Vol.  IX.  p.  342. 

2* 


18  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

chalky  soil.  It  is  true  it  is  cultivated  in  Norfolk,  England, 
which  is  a  soil  of  sand  and  loam,  naturally  destitute  of  cal- 
careous matter.  But  it  is  common  there  to  dress  their  lands 
Avith  clay  marl,  which  ahounds  with  carbonate  of  lime  ; 
without  which  dressing,  says  Young,  Norfolk  soils  will  not 
grow  sain  foin.  This  writer  considers  it  '  one  of  the  most 
valuable  plants  that  were  ever  introduced  into  the  agricul- 
ture of  Great  Britain.'  The  well-known  Mr.  Coke  culti- 
vates four  hundred  acres  of  this  grass,  and  sows  it  without 
other  seeds.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate 
sain  foin  in  this  country,  but  hitherto  I  believe  without  suc- 
cess.* 

"  Timothy.  This  grass  is  distinguished  in  Great  Britain 
by  the  name  of  meadow  cat's-tail ;  in  New  England  by  that 
of  herd's  grass.  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  grasses  that 
are  cultivated  ;  and,  what  is  worthy  the  notice  of  every 
farmer,  it  affords  more  than  double  the  nutriment  when  cut 
in  the  seed  to  what  it  does  in  the  flower.  In  tenacious, 
strong,  and  moist  soils,  it  is  entitled  to  a  precedence,  per- 
haps, to  any  single  grass  for  hay,  yet  does  not  seem  to  be 
suitable  to  mix  with  clover  seeds  when  intended  for  meadow. 
Another  consideration,  which  renders  it  particularly  worthy 
of  attention,  is  the  seed  which  it  affords,  and  which  may  be 
saved  without  materially  diminishing  the  hay  crop.  From 
ten  to  thirty  bushels  of  seed  may  be  taken  from  an  acre  of 
timothy,  which,  at  the  price  it  now  bears,  is  of  itself  a  hand- 
some remuneration. 

''Florin  has  of  late  years  been  brought  into  notice  in 
Great  Britain,  by  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Richardson  ;  who 
particularly  recommended  it  for  the  cold  boggy  soils  of  the 
mountainous  districts,  where  ordinary  grasses  would  not 
thrive.  The  peculiar  value  of  the  florin,  and  of  other 
grasses  of  the  agrostis  family,  arises  from  their  fltness  for 
winter  pasture  :  as  they  lose  very  little  of  their  bulk  or  nu- 
triment by  remaining  in  the  soil  after  they  have  ceased  to 
grow.  Its  name  {creeping  bent  or  couch  grass)  implies  a 
difficulty  in  mowing  it,  except  on  a  surface  perfectly  smooth. 

"  Upright  Bent  G-rass.  Dr.  Muhlenburg  considers  this  the 
herd's  grass  of  the  southern,  and  the  foul  meadow  of  the 
eastern  States,  of  which  tohite  top  and  red  top  are  varieties. 

*  Sain  foin  may  be  considered  as  out  of  the  question  in  New  England.  So 
large  a  portion  is  winter-killed  tliat  it  is  not  worth  cultivation.  This  is  af- 
firmed on  the  strength  of  repeated  trials. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  19 

This  grass  is  more  congenial  to  our  climate  than  to  that  of 
England.  In  any  boggy  soils,  both  varieties  of  this  grass 
have  come  in  spontaneously,  as  soon  as  the  ground  has  been 
cleared  and  drained,  have  soon  formed  a  compact  sod,  and 
afforded  good  hay  and  good  pasture. 

"Flat-stalked  Meadow  Grass.  This,  according  to  Muhlen- 
burg,  is  the  blue  grass,  which  is  considered  as  a  pest  in 
many  of  our  tillage  grounds.  The  small  crop  which  it  gives, 
and  the  little  nutritive  matter  which  this  affords,  shows  the 
little  dependence  which  ought  to  be  placed  on  it  for  grazing, 
or  for  hay. 

"  Smooth-stalked  Meadoiv  Grass  is  a  native  plant,  and  is 
well  adapted  for  permanent  pastures.  It  grows  quick  after 
being  cropped,  and  does  well  upon  dry  ground. 

"  Floating  Fescue  grows  well  in  swamps  and  bog  soils, 
where  good  kinds  are  most  wanted. 

"I  would  suggest,  with  much  deference,  whether  grasses 
may  not  be  divided,  for  the  practical  benefit  of  the  farmer, 
into  three  kinds,  to  wit  :  1.  Cultivated  Grasses.  All  kinds, 
strictly  speaking,  which  the  soil  does  not  produce  spontane- 
ously, are  cultivated  grasses.  But  the  term  as  generally 
used,  and  in  the  sense  I  here  employ  it,  applies  only  to  such 
as  are  sown  to  altennate  with  grain,  pulse,  and  roots,  in  a 
systematic  rotation  of  crops.  The  grasses  selected  for  this 
purpose  are,  generally,  the  red  clovers,  lucerne,  sain  foin, 
orchard,  tall  oat,  timothy,  or  rye  grass.  Clover  is  the  pri- 
mary dependence  on  all  soils  which  will  grow  it,  and  espe- 
cially where  gypsum  can  exercise  its  magic  powers.  As 
vegetables  are  said  to  exhaust  the  soil  in  proportion  to  the 
smallness  of  their  leaves,  (the  larger  the  leaves  the  more 
nutriment  they  draw  from  the  atmosphere,  and  the  less  from 
the  soil,)  clovers  are  entitled  to  tlie  high  commendation  they 
have  obtained  among  American  farmers.  But  as  these 
plants  are  liable  to  premature  destruction  by  the  frosts  of 
winter,  it  is  both  prudent  and  wise  to  intermix  with  their 
seeds  those  of  some  other  grasses  more  to  be  depended  on. 

"  For  this  purpose,  on  sands,  loams,  and  gravels,  and 
these  constitute  the  soils  usually  employed  in  convertible 
husbandry,  the  orchard  grass  or  tall  meadow  oat  grass  ap- 
pear to  be  best  calculated  to  insure  profit.  They  grow 
early,  delight  in  a  clover  sod,  and  are  fit  for  the  scythe 
when  clover  is  in  the  bloom,  the  time  it  ought  to  be  cut.  The 
hay  from  this  mixture  may  be  made  before  harvest  commen- 
ces ;   and  if  the  soil  is  good,  a  second  crop  may  be  cut  al- 


20  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

most  equal  to  the  first.  If  intended  for  pasture  the  second 
year,  either  of  these  grasses  will  afford  more  abundant  food 
than  timothy. 

"  In  clays,  the  meadow  fox  tail,  an  excellent  grass,  might 
be  substituted,  though,  according  to  Sinclair,  the  tall  oat 
grass  will  do  well  here  also.  In  wet  soils,  where  clovers  do 
not  grow  well,  timothy  and  meadow  reed  grass  would  be  a 
good  selection,  sown  either  separate  or  together. 

"Lucerne  and  sain  foin  require  a  deep  dry  soil,  and  are 
generally  sown  without  other  seeds.  The  first  does  not  at- 
tain to  perfection  before  the  third  year  ;  and  both,  where 
successfully  cultivated,  are  permitted  to  occupy  the  ground 
from  six  to  eight  years. 

"2.  Meadow  Grasses.  In  selecting  these  the  object  is 
to  obtain  the  greatest  burden  of  good  hay,  and  to  mix  those 
kinds  which  may  be  profitably  cut  at  the  same  time. 

"  For  clayey  and  moist  soils,  many  valuable  and  nutritious 
kinds  seem  to  be  well  adapted  ;  that  is  to  say,  meadow  fox 
tail,  timothy,  tall  oat,  meadow  soft  grass,  floating  fescue, 
rye  grass,  reed  meadow,  smooth-stalked  meadow,  American 
cock's  foot,  upright  bent  or  herd's  grass,  and  tall  fescue. 
And  the  five  last  are  peculiarly  suited  to  swamp  or  bog  soils. 
For  dry  loams,  sands,  and  gravels,  which  never  ought  to  be 
kept  long  in  grass,  the  cock's  foot  or  orchard  grass,  and  tall 
oat,  are  probably  the  best  ;  and  to  these  might  be  added  red 
and  white  clover. 

"  The  great  difficulty  is  to  prevent  the  deterioration  of 
meadows.  This  takes  place  from  the  better  grasses  running 
out,  and  giving  place  to  coarser  kinds,  in  moss,  and  to  use- 
less or  noxious  plants,  aided  ofi;en  by  a  neglect  to  keep  them 
well  drained.  The  finer  and  more  nutritious  kinds  thrive 
best  in  moist,  though  they  will  not  live  long  in  wet  soils. 
Hence  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  keep  the  surface  soil 
free  from  standing  water,  by  good  and  sufficient  ditches  ; 
and  it  often  becomes  necessary,  and  it  is  in  most  cases 
advisable,  on  a  flat  surface,  to  lay  the  land  in  ridges  at 
right  angles  with  the  drains.  Another  precaution  to  be 
observed  is,  not  to  feed  them  with  stock  when  the  soil  is 
wet  and  poachy.  Harrowing  in  the  fall  has  been  found 
beneficial  to  meadows.  It  destroys  mosses,  and  covers  the 
seeds  of  grasses  which  have  fallen,  or  may  be  sown,  and 
thus  produces  a  continued  succession  of  young  plants.  In 
Europe,  lime  is  used  with  good  effect  as  a  top  dressing  to 
grass  lands,  as  are  also  ashes.     With  us,  the  annual  appli- 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  21 

cation  of  a  bushel  of  gypsum  to  the  acre  is  found  beneficial. 
It  not  only  thickens  the  verdure  with  clover,  but  is  of  ad- 
vantage in  most  other  grasses.  Stable  manure  should  be 
used  only  when  it  can  be  spared  from  the  more  profitable 
uses  of  tillage.  When  the  means  above  enumerated  fail  to 
insure  a  good  crop  of  hay,  it  is  time  to  resort  to  the  plough, 
and  a  course  of  crops. 

"3.  Pasture  Grasses.  But  few  of  the  grasses  most  valu- 
ed in  Great  Britain  for  pasture  are  the  natural  growth  of  the 
United  States  ;  but  it  is  believed  that  if  the  seeds  are  once 
introduced  upon  our  farms,  we  shall  find  little  difficulty  in 
naturalizing  them.  Neither  the  orchard  nor  vernal  grass, 
which  are  said  to  be  indigenous  to  our  country,  are  recog- 
nised in  the  grass  lands  which  have  come  within  my  ob- 
servation :  yet  they  constitute,  with  fox  tail  and  tall  oat 
grass,  the  earliest  and  most  valuable  varieties  for  perennial 
pastures.  The  meadow  fox  tail  and  orchard  grass,  together 
with  our  white  clover  and  green  meadow  grass,  poa  tiivi- 
alis,  (which  seldom  require  to  be  sown,)  I  think  would  form 
the  best  selection  for  all  grounds  which  are  moderately  dry. 
The  rye  and  oat  grasses,  or  meadow  soft  grass,  might  be 
either  substituted  for  the  two  first,  or  combined  with  them. 
These  would  afford  spring,  summer,  and  fall  feed,  abundant 
in  quantity  and  wholesome  and  nutritious  in  quality.  On 
wet  soils,  (though  pastures  require  to  be  drained,  as  well  as 
meadows,  to  insure  a  rich  herbage,)  the  tall  fescue,  smooth- 
stalked  meadow,  upright  bent,  and  herd's  grass,  may  be  in- 
troduced to  advantage.  Gypsum  is  applied  to  pastures  with 
the  same  benefit  that  it  is  to  meadows." 

Two  able  papers,  "  On  Grasses,"  have  been  written  by 
the  Hon.  John  Welles,  for  "The  Massachusetts  Agricul- 
tural Repository."  One  of  these,  republished  in  "  The  New 
England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  I.  page  235,)  contains  the  following 
observations  on  the  loss  of  weight  of  certain  grasses,  by 
evaporation,  "  in  the  process  of  drying  or  making,  for  safe 
and  useful  preservation." 

It  should  be  premised  that  the  time  of  cutting  the  several 
grasses,  &.C.,  in  the  following  statement,  was  the  same  as  is 
usually  practised  by  husbandmen  in  this  State. 

"  Of  100  lbs.  of  vegetables,  cured  in  1822,  the  product  was  as  follows, 
viz.  : 

100  lbs.  of  green  white  clover  gave  of  hay  17i    lbs. 

100  "      of  red  do.  "  27*     " 

100  "      of  herd's  grass  "  40       " 

100  "      of  fresh   meadow  "  38       " 


22  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

100  lbs.   of  salt  grass  gave  of  hay         39  lbs. 

100  "      of  mixed  2d  crop,  English  rowen       "  181  " 

100  "      of  corn  stalks  "  .  25  " 

100"      of  do.  cut  in  "the  milk  with  the  ear    "  25  " 

"  It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  weight  will  vary  from  ripeness,  and  many 
other  canses,  such  as   wetness  of  season,  shade,  thickness  of  growth,  &c." 

In  a  subsequent  number  of  "The  Massachusetts  Agricul- 
tural Repository,"  was  published  another  elaborate  com- 
munication from  the  same  pen,  from  which  the  following 
table  is  extracted. 

Table  showing  the  loss  of  weight  in  drying  grasses. 


1822. 

1823. 

100  lbs. 

,  of  green    white  clover*     gave 

m 

27 

100  " 

of  redf  clover                          " 

27i 

25 

100  " 

of  herd's  grass                          " 

40 

39 

100  " 

of  fresh  meadow                       " 

38 

44 

100  " 

of  salt  grass:}:                            " 

39 

60 

100  " 

of  2d  crop,  or  English  rowen  " 

18* 

19 

100  " 

of  corn  stalks                            " 

25 

25 

100  " 

of  spiked  oat  grass                " 

50 

100  " 

of  red  top                                   " 

46 

100  « 

of  Rhode  Island                       " 

40 

100  « 

of  couch  grass                          " 

43 

100  « 

of  marine  black  grass             " 

38 

On  Sowing  Grass  Seeds.  A  diversity  of  opinion  exists 
relative  to  the  best  time  for  sowing  grass  seeds.  Some  pre- 
fer the  fall  ;  but  the  majority  of  those  who  have  written  on 
the  subject,  recommend  sowing  in  the  spring;  and  that  sea- 
son, so  far  as  our  acquaintance  extends,  is  most  generally 
chosen.  European  writers  direct,  even  when  grass  seed  is 
sown  on  the  same  ground  with  winter  grain,  to  sow  the  grass 
seed  in  the  spring,  and  harroiv  it  in.  They  say  that  the  har- 
rowing will  on  the  whole  be  of  service  to  the  grain,  though  a 
few  of  the  plants  will  be  torn  up  by  the  process.  The  Hon. 
Richard  Peters  likewise  directed  to  "  harrow  your  winter 
grain  in  the  spring,  in  the  direction  of  the  seed  furrows,  or 
drills,  and  be  not  afraid  of  disturbing  a  few  plants;  manifold 
produce  will  remunerate  for  the  destroyed." 

"The  Farmer's  Assistant"  says,  "  Clover  may  be  sown 
with  barley,  oats,  or  spring  wheat,  when  that  article  is  rais- 

*  The  white  clover  of  1822  was  taken  in  the  shade;  that  in  1823,  from  a 
light  warm  soil  exposed  to  the  sun. 

t  The  red  clover  in  1823  was  taken  in  the  first  year  of  its  product,  in  close 
growth,  and  for  that  reason  falls  short  of  1822. 

:}:  The  salt  grass  of  1822  was,  I  havtf  reason  to  suppose,  a  second  growth, 
which  accounts  for  the  difference  of  the  two  years. 

If  enabled,  experiments  will  in  these  cases  be  hereafter  given,  so  as  to  fix 
the  result  with  sufficient  accuracy. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  23 

ed;  or  it  may  be  sown  with  winter  wheat  in  the  fall,  if 
the  land  be  dry  and  warmly  exposed ;  or  in  the  spring,  when 
it  should  be  lightly  harrowed  in."  The  "Domestic  Encyclo- 
pedia" asserts,  that  "  experienced  farmers  generally  prefer 
sowing  clover  with  wheat  rather  than  with  barley  or  oats,  as 
in  dry  seasons  the  clover  frequently  overpowers  the  oats  or 
barley,  and  if  it  be  sown  late  in  order  to  obviate  this  evil,  it 
often  fails,  and  the  crop  is  lost  for  that  season.  Probably 
the  diversity  of  opinion  respecting  the  proper  time  of  sowing 
clover  seed  may  arise  from  the  difference  in  the  nature  of 
the  soil  on  which  trials  have  been  made.  An  experienced 
agriculturist,  (Edward Duffield,  Esq.,  of  Philadelphia  coun- 
ty,) assures  Dr.  Mease,  that  he  repeatedly  failed  in  obtaining 
a  crop,  when  he  sowed  his  clover  in  autumn  or  winter;  and 
he  is  uniformly  successful  when  he  sows  in  the  spring.  His 
soil  is  a  light  loam." 

On  the  other  hand,  an  experienced  and  scientific  cultiva- 
tor, whose  suggestions  on  this  subject  were  published  in 
*'The  New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  VI.  p.  238,)  dated  Wes- 
ton, and  signed  J.  M.  G.,  says;  "Dear-bought  experience 
has  taught  me  the  inefficacy  of  sowing  grass  seed  in  spring 
with  grain;  it  was  a  custom  imported  with  the  ancestors  of 
the  country  from  Old  England,  where  the  cloudy  summers 
and  moist  climate  will  warrant  a  practice  which,  under  our 
clear  sky  and  powerful  sun,  is  altogether  unsuitable.  I 
must  add,  that  grass  sown  in  the  fall  imperiously  requires  to 
be  rolled  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  fit  order; 
otherwise  the  small  plants,  slightly  rooted  yet,  and  heaved 
up  by  the  frost,  will  suffer  much,  perhaps  total  destruction  ; 
and  truly,  among  the  many  uses  to  which  the  roller  may  be 
applied,  none,  perhaps,  would  be  more  valuable  than  to  roll 
all  grass  lands  in  spring.  The  plants  suffer  from  the  wind 
and  from  the  heat,  and  this  being  the  case  more  or  less  every 
spring,  it  must  necessarily  bring  on  a  premature  decay,  which 
the  yearly  use  of  the  roller  at  that  season  might  prevent." 

We  cannot  reconcile  these  authorities;  but  it  is  probable 
that  both  in  fall  and  spring  sowing  of  grass  seeds,  there  may 
be  successful  and  unfavorable  results,  according  to  circum- 
stances of  soil,  season,  &c.  Fall  sown  grass  seeds  are  lia- 
ble to  be  winter-killed,  or  destroyed  by  frost  ;  spring  sown 
grass  seeds  may  perish  by  drought  and  heat.  But,  when- 
ever sown,  there  will  be  less  danger  either  from  frost  or 
drought,  if  the  seed  is  well  covered  with  a  harrow,  and  the 
ground  pressed  on  it  with  a  roller. 


24  THE  COMPLETE  FARMER 

Young's  "Farmer's  Calendar,"  under  the  date  of  August, 
says,  "  This  is  the  best  season  of  the  whole  year  for  laying 
down  land  to  grass;  and  no  other  is  admissible  for  it  on 
strong,  wet,  or  heavy  soils.  Spring  sowings  with  grain  may 
succeed,  and  do  often,  but  that  they  are  hazardous  I  know 
from  forty  years'  experience." 

There  is  likewise  a  great  difference  of  opinion  as  respects 
the  quantitij  of  seed  to  be  sown  when  land  is  laid  down  to 
grass.  Sir  John  Sinclair  says,  "  It  is  a  great  error,  in  laying 
land  down  to  grass,  to  sow  an  insufficient  quantity  of  seeds. 
In  general,  twelve  or  fourteen  pounds  of  clover  is  the  usual 
average  allowance.  But  that  quantity,  it  is  contended, 
ought  greatly  to  be  increased,  and  in  many  cases  doubled." 
"The  Farmer's  Assistant"  tells  us,  that  "the  quantity  of 
red  clover  seed  to  be  sown  on  the  acre  is  about  fourteen 
pounds,  and  none  but  clean  seed  ought  to  be  sown." 

The  "  Memoirs  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  of  the  State 
of  New  York,"  (Vol.  II.  p.  30,)  in  giving  an  account  of  the 
methods  of  culture  adopted  by  farmers  in  Rensselaer  coun- 
ty, state,  that  "  Farmers  differ  in  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
most  suitable  quantity  of  seed.  S.  Germond,  H.  Worthing- 
ton,  C.  Porter,  C.  R.  Golden,  and  some  others,  say  that 
eight  quarts  of  the  mixture  of  clover  and  timothy  seed 
should  be  sown  on  every  acre.  And  colonel  J.  Carpenter 
sows  sixteen  quarts  on  an  acre.  He  says,  when  the  grass 
and  clover  grow  very  thick,  it  will  be  more  tender  feed,  and 
more  fine  hay,  and  that  it  will  not  run  out  so  soon.  But  J. 
Phillips,  G.  Eddy,  and  many  others,  consider  four  quarts  as 
sufficient. 

"All  agree  that  the  proportions  of  the  mixture  of  the 
seeds  should  be  governed  by  the  nature  of  the  soil :  that  in 
a  sandy  soil  three-fourths  of  the  seed  should  be  clover;  in 
clay  loam  it  should  be  equal  parts  ;  in  clay  soil  but  one 
fourth  clover  seed. 

"There  should  be  at  least  a  bushel  of  plaster  sown  on 
every  acre  of  clover  and  grass  land  of  a  sandy,  gravelly,  or 
loamy  soil.  Also  on  all  upland  natural  meadows.  Two 
bushels  per  acre  are  much  better  than  one  on  sandy  or 
gravelly  soil." 

Payson  Williams,  Esq.,  of  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts, 
who  received  a  premium  from  the  Massachusetts  Agricul- 
tural Society  for  the  greatest  quantity  of  spring  wheat,  rais- 
ed by  him  in  the  summer  of  18*22,  in  giving  a  description 
of  the  mode  of  culture  by  him  adopted,  says,  "The  quan- 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  25 

tity  of  grass  seed  used  by  me  is  never  less  than  twelve 
pounds  of  clover  and  one  peck  of  herd's  grass  (timothy)  to 
the  acre.  Here,  permit  me  to  observe,  that  innumerable 
are  the  instances  in  this  country  where  the  farmer  fails  in 
his  grass  crops  by  not  allowing  seed  enough  ;  and,  what  is 
worse,  the  little  he  does  give  with  a  sparing  hand  is  suffered 
to  take  its  chance  under  that  pest  of  agriculture  called  the 
bush  harrow,  which  not  only  drags  stones  and  other  loose 
matters  into  heaps,  but  leaves  the  soil  dead  and  heavy,  and 
does  not  cover  the  seed  deep  enough  to  strive  with  our  July 
drought  effectually." 

We  have,  however,  been  verbally  assured,  by  very  cor- 
rect and  scientific  agriculturists,  that  six  or  seven  pounds  of 
clover  seed,  where  the  ground  is  highly  manured,  is  amply 
sufficient,  and  that  by  exceeding  that  quantity  the  plants  so 
shade  and  stifle  each  other  that  there  is  little  substance  in 
the  hay  made  from  them.  No  doubt  much  depends  on  the 
quality  and  richness  of  the  soil.  The  poorer  the  soil  the 
greater  the  quantity  of  grass  seed.  Clover  seed  of  a  bright 
yellow,  with  a  good  quantity  of  the  purple  and  brown  color- 
ed seed  among  it,  (which  shows  the  maturity  of  the  seed,) 
should  be  preferred. 


GRAIN.  Grain,  strictly  speaking,  signifies  seeds,  grow- 
ing in  spikes  or  ears,  and  includes  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
&c.  Of  the  culture  of  these  we  shall  treat  under  those  heads, 
respectively.  We  shall  here  give  some  directions  for  im- 
proving grain  of  any  sort  which  has  become  musty,  or  sour. 

"The  wheat  [or  other  grain]  must  be  put  into  any  con- 
venient vessel,  capable  of  containing  at  least  three  times  the 
quantity,  and  the  vessel  must  be  subsequently  filled  with 
boiling  water;  the  grain  should  then  be  occasionally  stirred, 
and  the  hollow  and  decayed  grains  (which  will  float)  may 
be  removed;  when  the  water  has  become  cold,  or,  in  gener- 
al, when  about  half  an  hour  has  elapsed,  it  is  to  be  drawn 
off.  It  will  be  proper  then  to  rinse  the  corn  [grain]  with 
cold  water,  in  order  to  remove  any  portion  of  the  water 
which  had  taken  up  the  must;  after  which,  the  corn  being 
completely  drained,  it  is,  without  loss  of  time,  to  be  thinly 
spread  on  the  floor  of  a  kiln,  and  thoroughly  dried,  care 
being  taken  to  stir  and  to  turn  it  frequently  during  this  part 
of  the  process." —  Code  of  Jlgricidture. 

Indian  Corn.     Indian  corn,  or  maize,  as  it  is  sometimes 
3 


D.  H.  HILL  LIBRARY 

North  r^.ari^irn.  o*_^_  ^    .. 


26  THE   COMPLETE   FAKMER 

called,  is  a  very  important  crop.  The  celebrated  English 
agriculturist,  Arthur  Young,  in  speaking  of  the  agriculture 
of  France,  observed,  "  The  line  of  maize  [corn]  may  be 
said  to  be  the  division  between  the  good  husbandry  of  the 
south  and  the  bad  husbandry  of  the  north  of  the  kingdom  ; 
till  you  meet  with  maize,  very  rich  soils  are  fallowed,  but 
never  after.  Perhaps  it  is  the  most  important  plant  that 
can  be  introduced  into  the  agriculture  of  any  country,  where 
climate  will  suit  it.  The  only  good  husbandry  in  the  king- 
dom (some  small  rich  districts  excepted)  arises  from  the 
possession  and  management  of  this  plant.  For  the  inhabit- 
ants of  a  country  to  live  upon  that  plant,  which  is  the  pre- 
paration for  wheat,  and  at  the  same  time  keep  their  cattle 
fat  upon  the  leaves  of  it,  is  to  possess  a  treasure  for  which 
they  are  indebted  to  their  climate."  The  perfect  tillage  and 
plentiful  manuring  requisite  for  Indian  corn  make  it  an  ex- 
cellent substitute  for  a  summer  fallow;  it  is  a  crop  not  liable 
to  be  injured  by  too  much  or  too  coarse  manure;  it  not  only 
enables,  but,  as  it  were,  forces  the  farmer  in  the  course  of 
its  culture  to  subdue  his  land  and  exterminate  weeds. 

Soil.  A  light  loomy  soil  is  best  for  this  crop,  and  even  if 
sand  greatly  predominates  it  will  produce  good  corn  with  the 
help  of  manure.  Corn  will  not  flourish  on  lands  in  which 
clay  is  the  chief  ingredient,  and  which  are  therefore  stiff" 
and  wet. 

Preparation.  "  The  best  preparation  for  a  corn  crop  is  a 
clover  or  other  grass  lay,  well  covered  with  a  long  manure, 
recently  spread,  neatly  ploughed,  and  harrowed  lengthwise 
of  the  furrow.  A  roller  may  precede  the  harrow  with  ad- 
vantage. The  time  of  performing  these  operations  depends 
on  the  texture  of  the  soil  and  the  quality  of  the  sod.  If 
the  first  is  inclining  to  clay,  or  the  latter  tough,  or  of  long 
continuance,  the  ploughing  may  be  performed  the  preceding 
autumn;  but  where  sand  or  gravel  greatly  preponderate,  or 
the  sod  is  light  and  tender,  it  is  best  performed  in  the 
spring,  and  as  near  to  planting  as  is  convenient.  The  har- 
row, at  least,  should  immediately  precede  planting.  All 
seeds  do  best  when  put  into  the  fresh  stirred  mould.  Stiff" 
lands  are  ameliorated  and  broken  down  by  fall  ploughing  ; 
but  light  lands  are  rather  prejudiced  by  it.  When  corn  is 
preceded  by  a  tilled  crop,  the  ground  should  be  furrowed, 
and  the  seed  deposited  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrows.  Where 
there  is  a  sod,  the  rows  should  be  superficially  marked,  and 
the  seed  planted  on  the  surface.     Where  the  field  is  flat,  or 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  27 

the  sub-soil  retentive  of  moisture,  the  land  should  be  laid 
in  ridges,  that  the  excess  of  water  which  falls  may  pass  off 
in  the  furrows. 

"  The  time  of  planting  must  vary  in  different  districts, 
and  in  different  seasons.  The  ground  should  be  sufficiently 
warmed  by  vernal  heat,  to  cause  a  speedy  germination. 
Natural  vegetation  affords  the  best  guide.  My  rule  has 
bees  to  plant  when  the  apple  is  bursting  its  blossom  buds, 
which  has  generally  been  between  the  12th  and  20th  of 
May. 

'  Preparation  of  the  seed.  The  enemies  to  be  combated 
are  the  wire-worm,  brown  grub,  birds,  and  squirrels.  Of 
these,  the  first  and  two  last  prey  upon  the  kernels,  and 
against  these  tar  offers  a  complete  protection.  I  soak  my 
seed  twelve  to  twenty  hours  in  hot  water,  in  which  is  dis- 
solved a  few  ounces  of  crude  saltpetre,  and  then  add  (say 
to  eight  quarts  of  seed)  half  a  pint  of  tar,  previously  warmed, 
and  diluted  with  a  quart  of  warm  water.  The  mass  is  well 
stirred,  the  corn  taken  out,  and  as  much  plaster  added  as 
will  adhere  to  the  grain.  This  impregnates  and  partially 
coats  the  seed  with  tar.  The  experience  of  years  will  war- 
rant me  in  confidently  recommending  this  as  a  protection  for 
the  seed. 

"  The  manner  of  planting  is  ordinarily  in  hills  from  two 
and  a  half  to  six  feet  apart,  according  to  the  variety  of  corn, 
the  strength  of  the  soil,  and  the  fancy  of  the  cultivator. 
The  usual  distance  in  my  neighbourhood  is  three  feet. 
Some,  however,  plant  in  drills  of  one,  two,  or  three  rows, 
by  which  a  greater  crop  is  unquestionably  obtained,  though 
the  expense  of  culture  is  somewhat  increased.  The  quan- 
tity of  seed  should  be  double,  and  may  be  quadruple*  what 
is  required  to  stand.  It  is  well  known  that  a  great  differ- 
ence is  manifest  in  the  appearance  of  the  plants.  Some 
appear  feeble  and  sickly,  which  the  best  nursing  will  not 
render  productive.  The  expense  of  seed,  and  the  labor  of 
pulling  up  all  but  three  or  four  of  the  strongest  plants  in  a 
hill,  it  is  believed  will  be  amply  remunerated  by  the  increas- 
ed product.  If  the  seed  is  covered  as  it  should  be  with 
mould  only,  and  not  too  deep,  we  may  at  least  calculate 
upon  every  hill  or  drill  having  its  requisite  number  of  plants. 


*  Messrs.  Pratts,  of  Madison  county,  New  York,  obtained  the  prodigious 
crop  of  one  liundred  and  seventy  busliels  per  acre,  and  used  seven  bushels  of 
seed  to  the  acre,  the  plants  being  subsequently  reduced  to  the  requisite  number. 


28  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

"  The  after  culture  consists  in  keeping  the  soil  loose  and 
free  from  weeds,  which  is  ordinarily  accomplished  by  two 
dressings,  and  in  thinning  the  plants,  which  latter  may  be 
done  the  first  hoeing,  or  partially  omitted  till  the  last.  The 
practice  of  ploughing  among  corn  and  of  making  large  hills 
is  justly  getting  into  disrepute  ;  for  the  plough  bruises  and 
cuts  the  roots  of  the  plants,  turns  up  the  sod  and  manure  to 
waste,  and  renders  the  crop  more  liable  to  suffer  by  drought. 
The  first  dressing  should  be  performed  as  soon  as  the  size 
of  plants  will  permit,  and  the  best  implement  to  precede  the 
hoe  is  the  corn  harrow,  adapted  to  the  width  of  the  rows, 
which  every  farmer  can  make.  This  will  destroy  most  of 
the  weeds,  and  pulverize  the  soil.  The  second  hoeing 
should  be  performed  before  or  as  soon  as  the  tassels  appear, 
and  may  be  preceded  by  the  corn  harrow,  a  shallow  furrow 
with  the  plough,  or,  what  is  better  than  either,  by  the  cul- 
tivator. A  slight  earthing  is  beneficial,  provided  the  earth 
is  scraped  from  the  surface,  and  the  sod  and  manure  not  ex- 
posed. It  will  be  found  beneficial  to  run  the  harrow  or  cul- 
tivator a  third,  and  even  a  fourth  time  between  the  rows,  to 
destroy  weeds  and  loosen  the  surface,  particularly  if  the 
season  is  dry. 

"  In  harvesting  the  crop,  one  of  three  modes  is  adopted, 
viz.  :  1.  The  corn  is  cut  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  when 
the  grain  has  become  glazed  or  hard  upon  the  outside,  put 
immediately  in  stooks,  and  when  sufficiently  dried  the  corn 
and  stalks  are  separated,  and  both  secured.  2.  The  tops 
are  taken  off  when  the  corn  has  become  glazed,  and  the 
grain  permitted  to  remain  till  October  or  November  upon  the 
butts.  Or,  3.  Both  corn  and  stalks  are  left  standing  till  the 
grain  has  fully  ripened  and  the  latter  become  dry,  when  both 
are  secured.  There  are  other  modes,  such  as  leaving  the 
butts  or  entire  stalks  in  the  field  after  the  grain  is  gathered  ; 
but  these  are  so  wasteful  and  slovenly  as  not  to  merit  con- 
sideration. The  stalks,  blades,  and  tops  of  corn,  if  well 
secured,  are  an  excellent  fodder  for  neat  cattle.  If  cut,  or 
cut  and  steamed,  so  that  they  can  be  readily  masticated, 
they  are  superior  to  bay.  Besides,  their  fertilizing  proper- 
ties as  a  manure  are  greatly  augmented  by  being  fed  out  in 
the  cattle  yard  and  imbibing  the  urine  and  liquids  which  al- 
ways there  abound,  and  which  are  lost  to  the  farm  in  ordi- 
nary yards,  without  abundance  of  dry  litter  to  take  them  up. 
By  the  first  of  these  methods,  the  crop  may  be  secured  be- 
fore the  autumnal  rains  ;  the  value  of  the  fodder  is  increas- 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  29 

ed,  and  the  ground  is  cleared  in  time  for  a  winter  crop  of 
wheat  or  rje.  The  second  mode  impairs  the  value  of  the 
forage,  requires  more  labor,  and  does  not  increase  the  quan- 
tity or  improve  the  quality  of  the  grain.  The  third  mode 
requires  the  same  labor  as  the  first,  may  improve  the  quality 
of  the  grain,  but  must  inevitably  deteriorate  the  quality  of 
the  fodder.  The  corn  cannot  be  husked  too  promptly  after 
it  is  gathered  from  the  field.  If  permitted  to  heat,  the  value 
of  the  grain  is  materially  impaired." 

To  the  above  directions  (which  are  quoted  from  an  excel- 
lent article  written  by  J.  Buel,  Esq.,  of  Albany,  originally 
published  in  "  The  Genesee  Farmer,")  we  shall  add  some 
further  particulars  from  various  sources. 

A  writer  for  Goodsell's  "Genesee  Farmer,"  with  the 
signature  W.  P.  W.,  recommends  wetting  seed  corn  with 
soft  soap,  and  rolling  it  in  plaster,  and  gives  the  details  of 
an  experiment  which  tested  the  utility  of  this  practice. 

William  Clark,  Jun.,  of  Northampton,  Massachusetts, 
published  an  article  on  the  culture  of  corn  in  "The  New 
England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  XI.  p.  337,)  giving  in  detail  a  num- 
ber of  experiments,  which  favored  the  opinion  that  an  equal 
distance  each  way  is  the  best  method  of  planting  corn  ;  and 
that  on  soil  "similar  to  what  I  have  described,  [a  sandy 
loam  somewhat  exhausted  by  neglect  and  severe  cropping, 
manured  with  about  twenty  cart  loads  of  compost  to  the 
acre,]  about  nine  square  feet  of  surface  is  sufficient  ground 
for  one  hill."  That  is,  the  hills  were  three  feet  apart  each 
way  from  centre  to  centre  ;  but  he  does  not  state  how  many 
kernels  were  planted,  nor  how  many  plants  were  suffered  to 
remain  in  a  hill. 

It  has  often  been  stated  that  great  advantage  was  derived 
from  selecting  seed  corn  from  stalks  which  had  borne  two  or 
more  ears.  "  The  Hampshire  Gazette,"  published  at  North- 
ampton, Massachusetts,  mentions  a  farmer  who  "  has  select- 
ed his  seed  corn  in  this  way  for  three  years  past,  and  the  re- 
sult has  exceeded  his  expectation.  He  states,  that  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  in  his  corn-field  this  season  [1831],  stalks 
with  three,  four,  five,  and  sometimes  six  ears,  and  three  of 
them  fair,  full  grown,  and  fit  for  seed,  and  that  too  in  hills 
containing  four  or  five  stalks."  He  says,  "  I  think  my  crop 
has  been  increased  several  bushels  this  year  by  the  experi- 
ment. I  would  suggest  a  mode  of  selecting  seed  to  those 
who  do  not  cut  up  the  corn  at  the  roots.  When  they  are 
picking  corn,  and  find  a  stalk  with  two  or  more  ears,  let 
3* 


30  THE  COMPLETE  FARMER 

them  tie  the  husks  together,  and  the  ears  will  be  easily 
known  at  husking." 

A  solution  of  copperas  in  water  has  been  recommended 
as  forming  a  good  preparation  for  seed  corn.  Mr.  J.  Ells- 
worth, of  Ketch  Mills,  Connecticut,  in  a  communication 
published  in  "The  New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol,  X.  p. 
331,)  stated  as  follows  : 

"  Last  year  I  soaked  our  seed  corn  in  very  strong  copper- 
as water,  as  near  as  I  can  recollect  from  twenty-four  to 
thirty-six  hours  ;  every  kernel  was  made  as  black  as  char- 
coal ;  the  man  who  planted  the  corn  called  me  a  fool,  and 
said  it  would  never  vegetate.  But  every  hill  planted  came 
up  well,  and  during  its  growth  excited  the  remarks  of  all 
who  saw  it,  as  being  the  most  even  field  of  corn  they  ever 
saw.  Not  one  hill  in  the  whole  seven  acres  was  injured  by 
worms  ;  and  we  had  often  in  previous  years  been  compelled 
to  replant  several  times,  when  it  had  been  cut  down  by  the 
worms.  We  had  over  sixty  bushels  to  the  acre."  Copper- 
as water  will  not  preserve  corn  against  the  exit-worm,  which 
eats  off  the  young  plants  at  or  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  It  has  been  often  asserted,  (but  we  have  not 
known  it  tested  by  experiment,)  that  the  kernels  of  corn 
from  the  but-ends  of  the  ears  are  better  for  seed  than  those 
from  any  other  part  of  the  ear.  It  is  said  that  the  nearer 
the  seed  is  taken  from  the  largest  end,  the  larger  the  pro- 
duct. Others  recommend  to  reject  some  part  of  both  ends, 
and  plant  only  seeds  taken  from  the  middle.  Further  exper- 
iments are  desirable  to  ascertain  these  points. 

"  The  following  table,"  says  Judge  Buel,  "exhibits  the 
difference  in  product  of  various  methods  of  planting,  and 
serves  also  to  explain  the  manner  in  which  large  crops  of 
this  grain  have  been  obtained.  I  have  assumed  in  the  esti- 
mate that  each  stock  produces  one  ear  of  corn,  and  that  the 
ears  average  one  gill  of  shelled  grain.  This  is  estimating 
the  product  low;  for,  while  I  am  penning  this,  (October,)  I 
find  that  my  largest  ears  give  two  gills,  and  one  hundred 
fair  ears  half  a  bushel  of  shelled  corn.  The  calculation  is 
also  predicated  on  the  supposition  that  there  is  no  deficiency 
in  the  number  of  stocks,  a  contingency  pretty  sure  on  my 
method  of  planting.* 


*  Planting  an  extra  niimljer  of  plants  and  thinning  them  at  the  first  or  sec- 
ond hoeing. 


,■*»' 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  31 

h!Ils.  bush.        qts. 


1.  An  acre  in  hills  four  feet  apart  each  way  will 

produce 

2.  The  same,  three  feet  by  three 

3.  The  same,  two  by  two  and  a  half  feet 

4.  The  same,  in  drills  at  three  feet, 

plants  six  inches  apart  in  the  drills 

5.  The  same  in  do.,  two  rows  in  a  drill, 

six  inches  apart,  and  the  plants 
nine  inches,  and  three  feet  nine 
inches  from  centre  of  di'ills,  thus  : 


2722 

42 

16 

4840 

75 

20 

5808 

93 

28 

Btalks. 

29,040 

113 

14 

6.  The  same  in  do.,  three  rows  in  a  drill, 
as  above,  three  feet  from  centres 
of  drills,  thus  : 


30,970  120  31 


43,560  170 


"  The  fifth  mode  I  have  tried.  The  ground  was  highly 
manured,  the  crop  twice  cleaned,  and  the  entire  acre  gather- 
ed and  weighed  accurately  the  same  day.  The  product  in 
ears  was  one  hundred  and  three  bushels,  each  eighty-four 
pounds  net,  and  sixty-five  pounds  over.  The  last  bushel 
was  shelled  and  measured,  which  showed  a  product  on  the 
acre  of  one  hundred  and  eighteen  bu.shels  ten  quarts.  I 
gathered  at  the  rate  of  more  than  one  ,hundred  bushels  to 
the  acre  from  four  rods  planted  in  the  third  method,  last 
summer,  the  result  ascertained  in  the  most  accurate  man- 
ner. Corn  shrinks  about  twenty  per  cent,  after  it  is  crib- 
bed. The  sixth  mode  is  the  one  by  which  the  Messrs. 
Pratts,  of  Madison  County,  obtained  the  prodigious  crop  of 
one  hundred  and  seventy  bushels  per  acre.  These  gentle- 
men, I  am  told,  are  of  opinion,  that  the  product  of  an  acre 
may  be  increased  to  two  hundred  bushels." 

We  believe  that  nearly  all  the  large  and  premium  crops 
which  have  been  noted  in  the  annals  of  agriculture,  were 
procured  by  planting  the  corn  in  drills,  either  single,  double, 
or  treble.  There  has,  however,  been  a  difference  in  opinion 
relative  to  planting  corn  in  ridges  or  on  a  flat  surface. 
This,  we  think,  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  A 
loamy  soil,  or  such  as  is  proper  for  corn,  ought,  irl  our 
climate,  to  be  cultivated  in  a  flat  way,  that  it  may  the  better 
retain  moisture.  Dr.  Black,  of  Delaware,  advises  to  plant 
corn  in  such  a  manner  that  the  rows  may  run  directly  north 
and  south.  General  Hull,  of  Newton,  Massachusetts,  in 
cultivating  a  premium  crop  of  corn,   "drew  furrows  north 


32  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

and  south  three  and  a  half  feet  apart.  No  ridges  were  form- 
ed. Hills  were  then  made  with  the  hoe  in  those  furrows 
two  feet  apart,  not  flat,  hut  descending  to  the  south,  with  a 
small  bank  on  the  north  side  of  each  hill,  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  the  young  plants  a  fairer  exposure  to  the  sun." 

When  corn  is  planted  on  greensward  land,  the  holes  for 
the  hills  or  drills  should  be  made  quite  through  the  furrows, 
and  dung  put  into  the  holes.  If  this  caution  be  not  observ- 
ed the  crop  will  be  uneven,  as  the  roots  in  some  places, 
where  the  furrows  are  thickest,  will  have  but  little  benefit 
from  the  rotting  of  the  sward.  But  if  the  holes  are  made 
through,  the  roots  will  be  fed  with  both  fi.ved  and  putrid  air, 
supplied  by  the  fermentation  in  the  grass  roots  of  the  turf* 

Some  entertain  an  idea,  that  it  is  injurious  to  stir  the  soil 
when  it  is  dry  and  the  plants  are  suffering  for  want  of  rain. 
The  error  of  this  supposition  is  well  exposed,  in  an  article 
written  by  the  Hon.  J.  Lowell,  headed,  "  Stiri-ing  the  Earth 
a  Relief  against  Drought,"  puhVished  in  "  The  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  Repository."     The  following  is  an  extract  : 

"In  this  extraordinary  [very  dry]  season,  I  had  a  small 
patch  of  early  potatoes,  planted  in  a  warm  and  sandy  soil, 
purposely  to  procure  an  early  crop  ;  the  soil  was,  at  least, 
three-quarters  pure  sand,  mixed  with  some  food  for  plants 
among  the  sand.  The  severe  drought  threatened  a  total  loss 
of  the  crop.  The  potato  stalks  were  feeble,  drawn  up, 
scarcely  larger  than  goose  quills,  and  I  expected  every  day 
to  see  them  wither;  all  hopes  of  a  crop  were  abandoned.  I 
thought  that  they  were  the  fair  subjects  of  a  desperate  expe- 
riment. On  one  of  the  hottest  and  driest  days,  I  gave  them 
a  thorough  ploughing,  passing  the  plough  four  times  through 
each  row:  first  ploughing  two  furrows  from  the  hills,  as 
near  the  roots  as  possible  without  throwing  out  the  seed  po- 
tatoes, and  then  returning  the  loam  or  earth  instantly  back 
by  two  other  furrows.  No  rain  intervened  for  ten  days.  In 
three  days  after,  the  potatoes  changed  their  color,  they 
started  afresh  as  if  they  had  received  the  benefit  of  ample 
showers,  while  not  a  drop  of  rain  had  fallen. 

"The  dews,  which  were  abundant,  settled  upon  the  new 
turned  earth,  while  before  the  ploughing  no  moisture  had 
been  apparent. 

"The  last  fact,  though  it  cannot  have  escaped  the  notice 
of  the  most  careless  cultivator,  has  not  been  as  yet  explain- 
ed.    We  can  easily  see,  that  a  soil  rendered  porous  would 

*  Deane's  New  England  Farmer. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  33 

more  readily  and  easily  convey  its  moisture  to  the  roots.  It 
becomes  like  a  sponge,  and  is  readily  permeable,  or  rather 
readily  permits  the  moisture  to  pass  between  the  particles. 
But  it  is  not  yet  understood  why  it  attracts  the  moisture. 
Perhaps,  however,  it  may  be  owing  to  its  presenting  a  much 
greater  surface  to  the  moist  air  of  the  night.  The  fact, 
however,  which  is  what  most  concerns  lis,  is  settled.  Perhaps 
some  of  the  experiments  of  our  distinguished  countryman 
Dr.  Wells,  a  physician  of  London,  who  rendered  himself 
distinguished  by  his  remarks  on  dew,  may  tend  to  explain 
this  fact,  though  it  is  not  my  purpose  to  examine  the 
theory. 

"Every  man  who  feels  an  interest  in  the  question,  can 
satisfy  himself  at  once  by  stirring  a  small  piece  of  earth  in 
a  time  of  severe  drought,  and  if  he  does  not  find  it  in  the 
morning  more  filled  with  moisture  than  the  undisturbed 
ground  in  its  vicinity,  let  him  continue  an  unbeliever. 

"  But  there  is  another  mode,  and  it  is  one  which  I  have 
never  heard  suggested,  by  which  I  apprehend  the  stirring  ot 
the  surface,  and  making  it  light  and  porous,  is  beneficial  in 
great  droughts.  It  is  this  :  light  porous  bodies  are  bad  con- 
ductors of  heat:  perhaps  because  they  have  more  air  be- 
tween their  interstices.  The  facts  are  familiar  to  us.  Me- 
tallic bodies  acquire  an  intense  heat  under  the  rays  of  the 
sun;  so  do  stones  in  proportion  to  their  density.  The  earth, 
when  very  compact,  will  become  exceedingly  hot,  but 
garden  loam,  which  is  very  porous,  remains  cool  at  noonday 
two  inches  below  the  surface.  I  believe,  therefore,  that 
moving  the  surface,  and  keeping  it  in  a  light  and  porous 
state  enables  it  to  resist  the  heat  of  the  sun^s  rays;  that  the 
air  between  the  particles  of  earth  communicates  the  heat 
more  slowly  than  the  particles  themselves  do  when  in  close 
contact. 

"  Such  is  my  theory,  but  I  am  an  enemy  to  theories.  I 
always  distrust  them;  I  look  only  to  facts;  and  having  ob- 
served that  a  slight  covering  of  half  an  inch  of  seaweed 
would  preserve  my  strawberries  from  drought,  which  can 
only  arise  from  its  lying  so  loose  on  the  surface,  I  have  been 
led  to  infer  that  the  undoubted  fact,  that  soil  in  a  loose  pul- 
verized state  resists  drought,  is  owing  to  the  same  cause,  to 
wit,  the  slowness  with  which  the  heat  of  the  solar  rays  is 
communicated  to  the  roots.  But,  be  the  theory  sound  or 
unsound,  I  am  persuaded  that  every  farmer  will  find  that  the 
free  use  of  his  plough  and  hoe,  in  times  of  severe  drought,  will 


34  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

be  of  more  value  to  him  than  as  much  manure  as  that  labor 
would  purchase.  I  have  always  been  convinced,  from  my 
experience  as  an  horticulturist,  that  the  great  secret  in  culti- 
vation consists  in  making  the  soil  porous.  In  raising  exotic 
plants  we  know  it  to  be  true,  and  our  flower-pots  are  always 
supplied  with  soil  the  most  porous  which  we  can  obtain. 
The  farmer  may  borrow  light  from  an  occupation  which  he 
looks  upon  with  disdain,  but  which  serves  to  elucidate  and 
explain  the  secrets  of  vegetation." 

Corn  is  sometimes  profitably  planted  or  sown  for  fodder. 
In  an  "  Address  to  the  Essex  Agricultural  Society,"  by  the 
late  Colonel  Pickering,  we  find  the  following  remarks  : 

"  Every  farmer  knows  how  eagerly  cattle  devour  the  en- 
tire plant  of  Indian  corn  in  its  green  state;  and  land  in  good 
condition  will  produce  heavy  crops  of  it.  Some  years  ago, 
just  when  the  ears  were  in  the  milk,  I  cut  close  to  the 
ground  the  plants  growing  on  a  measured  space,  equal  as 
I  judged  to  the  average  product  of  the  whole  piece;  and 
found  that,  at  the  same  rate,  an  acre  would  yield  twelve  tons 
of  green  fodder;  probably  a  richer  and  more  nourishing 
food  than  any  other  known  to  the  husbandman.  And  this 
quantity  was  the  growth  of  less  than  four  months."  ***** 
"  It  has  appeared  to  me  that  the  sort  called  sweet  corn, 
yields  stalks  of  richer  juice  than  the  common  yellow  corn.  It 
is  also  more  disposed  to  multiply  suckers,  an  additional  re- 
commendation to  it,  when  planted  to  be  cut  in  a  green  state 
for  horses  and  cattle,  and  especially  for  milch  cows  ;  and 
the  time  of  planting  may  be  so  regulated  as  to  furnish  sup- 
plies of  food  just  when  the  pastures  usually  fail.  I  am 
inclined  to  doubt  whether  any  other  green  food  will  afford 
butter  of  equal  excellence." 

Colonel  Pickering  recommended  planting  northern  corn 
in  preference  to  southern  corn,  when  fodder  is  the  object. 
He  observed,  that  "the  green  stalks  of  our  northern  corn 
are  incomparably  sweeter  than  those  of  the  southern  States, 
at  least  when  both  sorts  are  grown  in  the  north." 

Corn  intended  for  fodder  may  be  sowed  either  broad-cast 
or  in  drills.  The  former  is  the  least  trouble,  the  latter  will 
give  the  greatest  produce,  and  leave  the  soil  in  the  best 
order. 

If  the  land  on  which  you  propose  to  raise  your  corn  is 
mowing  or  pasture,  fresh  ploughed  for  the  purpose,  broad- 
cast sowing  will  be  best,  as  the  sod  after  being  turned  over 
should  not  be   disturbed,   and  there  will  not,   probably,  be 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  35 

much  to  apprehend  from  weeds.  If  you  sow  broad-cast, 
from  three  to  three  and  a  half  bushels  to  an  acre  are  recom- 
mended, though  some  say  that  a  larger  quantity  will  be  still 
better.  If  in  drills,  you  will  run  light  furrows  about  three  feet 
asunder,  three  or  four  inches  deep,  and  drop  the  seed  corn 
in  the  furrows,  about  as  thick  as  peas  are  sown  for  field 
cultivation.  The  seed  may  be  covered  with  the  plough  ;  and 
a  harrow  drawn  lengthwise  of  the  furrows,  followed  by  a 
roller,  (if  you  have  one,)  or  perhaps  your  harrow  turned 
bottom  upwards,  for  want  of  a  roller,  will  complete  the 
planting.  If  you  mean  to  dry  it  for  winter  use,  it  will  be 
advisable  to  sow  early  in  the  season,  for  it  will  then  be  fit  to 
cut  at  a  time  when  it  can  be  most  easily  cured  for  preserva- 
tion in  your  barn,  or  other  receptacle  for  fodder. 

The  following  remarks  on  the  culture  of  corn,  are  from. the 
pen  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Colman,  of  Greenfield,  Massachusetts, 
one  of  our  best  practical  and  scientific  farmers. 

"  In  the  cultivation  of  this  crop,  it  is  in  the  first  place 
important  to  secure  an  early  kind,  as  the  best  security 
against  backward  springs  and  early  frosts.  A  field  of  corn 
in  Lexington,  planted  on  the  21st  of  June,  belonging  to  Mr. 
Daniel  Chandler,  yielded  an  ample  crop,  and  was  perfectly 
ripened.  The  seed  was  of  the  twelve  rowed  kind,  much  es- 
teemed there,  and  easily  procured.  The  kernel  is  small, 
but  it  yields  as  much  to  the  acre,  and  weighs  more  to  the 
bushel,  than  the  eight  rowed  kind,  with  a  larger  kernel. 
Now  a  kind  of  this  description,  which  will  ripen  in  nine  or 
ten  weeks,  in  so  unpropitious  a  season  as  the  last,  when 
there  were  few  warm  nights,  which  are  generally  considered 
most  important  to  the  forwarding  of  this  crop,  is  certainly  a 
great  acquisition.  It  will  be  well  to  remark  here,  that  it  is 
not  only  important  to  procure  an  early  kind,  but  it  will  re- 
quire particular  attention  to  keep  it  so.  Plants,  like  animals, 
have  a  constant  tendency  to  become  accommodated  to  the 
place  and  season  in  which  they  grow.  Indian  corn  brought 
from  the  north  to  the  south  will  become  later  and  require  a 
longer  season  for  its  ripenmg,  unless  particular  care  is 
taken  in  the  selection  of  the  earliest  ripe  ears  for  planting; 
which  is,  that  high  manuring  has  a  tendency,  by  rendering 
the  growth  of  a  plant  more  luxuriant  and  succulent,  to  retard 
its  ripening  and  to  lengthen  its  season. 

"We  are  satisfied  from  long  observation  and  experiment 
that  an  early  planting  of  corn  is  generally  and  strongly  to 
be   recommended.     The  last   season,    it   is  true,  formed  an 


36  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

exception  to  this  rule  ;  but  it  was  a  rare  case.  Now,  a  kind 
of  corn  which  by  early  planting  and  consequently  early 
ripening  gives  an  opportunity  of  laying  down  the  same 
ground  seasonably  with  winter  grain  and  clover  ;  or  which, 
where  the  first  plantings  will  afford  us  the  prospect  of  a  full 
crop,  when  the  vacancies  are  not  supplied  or  the  planting 
cannot  take  place  until  after  the  middle  of  June,  certainly 
is  a  great  object  to  farmers. 

"  The  kind  of  land  best  suited  to  this  crop,  I  am  satisfied, 
is  greensward,  completely  inverted,  rolled,  and  so  culti- 
vated as  not  during  the  whole  season  to  disturb  or  break  the 
sod  which  has  been  turned  over.  This  is  a  point  of  great 
importance;  for  the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  matter 
in  the  ground,  which  is  effectually  secured  in  this  way,  but 
entirely  lost  by  the  common  mode  of  cultivation,  will  great- 
ly contribute  to  the  nutriment  and  vigor  of  the  plant,  supply- 
ing in  fact  an  amount  of  manure  greatly  beyond  what  any 
conjectures  would  have  made  it,  had  not  an  exact  experi- 
ment determined  that  in  ordinary  cases  it  may  be  rated  over 
twelve  tons  of  vegetable  matter  to  the  acre. 

"  In  the  next  place  we  protest  against  the  practice  of  very 
deep  ploughing  for  this  crop,  and  that  of  burying  the  ma- 
nure deeply  under  the  sod.  The  depth  of  ploughing  may 
be  in  some  measure  regulated  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  ;  but 
three  or  four  inches  in  sward  land  may  be  regarded  as  am- 
ple ;  and  not  so  much  as  this,  where  this  would  carry  you 
below  the  vegetable  mould.  All  circumstances  considered, 
I  am  satisfied  that  it  is  most  eligible  to  spread  the  manure 
upon  the  surface,  ploughing  it  in  with  a  very  light  plough 
and  harrow  ;  and  though  something  may  be  lost  in  this  way 
by  evaporation,  yet  not  so  much  as  burying  it  under  the  sod; 
and  the  land  is  left  in  much  better  condition  for  the  next 
crops  where  the  manure  is  thus  spread,  than  where  it  is 
placed  in  the  hill  ;  nor  is  the  corn  so  like  to  suffer  from  the 
drought,  and  the  saving  is  considerable." 


NEAT  CATTLE.  Neat  cattle  form  a  very  important 
part  of  every  farmer's  live  stock.  In  selecting  them,  two 
things  are  very  material  :  first,  the  health  and  soundness  of 
the  stock  from  which  they  are  purchased  ;  and  secondly, 
the  quality  of  the  soil  on  the  produce  of  which  it  is  intended 
to  feed  them.     Stock  for  the  dairy  or  the  butcher  should  be 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  37 

selected  from  a  breed  of  which  you  know  or  can  ascertain 
every  particular  relative  to  their  general  health  and  sound- 
ness, and  the  manner  in  Avhich  they  have  been  reared,  in- 
cluding their  food,  shelter,  &c. 

"  The  Farmer's  and  Grazier's  Complete  Guide,"  by  B. 
Lawrence,  an  English  writer,  observes,  "Much  has  been 
written  as  to  what  breeds  are  the  best  ;  and  a  considerable 
greater  stress  has  been  laid  on  this  part  of  the  question  than 
is  borne  out  by  any  positive  result  ;  there  are  good  and  bad 
of  all  kinds  ;  and  provided  you  select  sound  and  healthy 
animals  from  warranted  stock,  you  will,  if  you  treat  them 
properly,  have  little  to  care  for  and  less  to  fear. 

"Always  purchase  cattle  that  have  been  fed  on  lands  of  a 
poorer  quality  than  your  own  ;  but  you  must  not  too  sud- 
denly put  them  to  the  richer  food,  or  they  will  be  liable  to 
several  dangerous  diseases.  It  rarely  happens,  however, 
that  cattle  purchased  from  rich  lands  thrive  well  on  poor 
soils  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  those  from  poorer  farms  do  well 
on  good  land.  The  choice  of  neat  cattle,  therefore,  for  the 
stocking  of  farms,  must,  in  a  great  degree,  be  regulated  by 
the  nature  and  quality  of  the  soil  intended  to  feed  them  on. 

"It  is  also  essential  that  the  cattle  should  be  young,  as 
well  as  healthy  and  of  sound  constitution  ;  for  the  younger 
they  are,  the  more  likely  they  will  be  to  do  service.  Their 
age  may  easily  be  known  by  the  teeth  ;  like  sheep,  they 
have  no  fore  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  ;  it  is  in  the  lower, 
therefore,  by  which  this  must  be  determined  :  the  horns  also 
afford  some  guide  in  this  respect. 

"  The  eight  fore  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  are  shed,  and  re- 
placed by  others  which  continue  through  life  :  the  two  mid- 
dle fore  teeth  fall  out  at  about  two  years  old,  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  others  not  so  white.  At  three  years  old  they 
have  two  more  next  to  those  of  the  previous  year  ;  and  thus 
by  the  two  succeeding  years  all  the  fore  teeth  are  renewed  ; 
they  are  then  termed  full  mouthed,  and  are  five  years  old. 
At  the  sixth  year  the  row  is  even,  the  last  two  being  com- 
pletely up.  Besides  these  they  have  ten  grinders  in  each 
jaw. 

"  At  the  age  of  three  years  the  horns  are  smooth  and 
even  ;  in  the  course  of  the  fourth  year,  a  wrinkle  or  circle 
forms  round  the  basis  of  the  horn  near  the  head  ;  this  is 
every  year  succeeded  by  another,  which  always  seems  to 
move  the  other  forward.  In  looking  therefore  at  the  horns 
of  neat  cattle,  if  the  first  circle  be  considered  as  three  years, 
4 


38  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

it  will  be  an  easy  task  to  tell  the  age  of  the  beast  at  any  sub- 
sequent period.  An  implicit  reliance  cannot,  however,  be 
placed  on  these  marks,  particularly  in  purchasing  of  stran- 
gers, or  cow  jobbers,  such  persons  having  been  known  to 
file  down  some  of  the  animal's  teeth,  and  alter  the  appear- 
ance of  the  horns  so  as  to  give  them  the  semblance  and 
marks  of  young  cattle  of  the  most  valuable  breeds,  and  pass 
them  off  as  such  to  strangers." 

Cows  for  the  Dairy.  In  selecting  cows  for  the  dairy,  the 
following  indications  should  be  attended  to.  Wide  horns,  a 
thin  head  and  neck,  dew-lap  large,  full  breast,  broad  back, 
large  deep  belly  ;  the  udder  capacious  but  not  too  fleshy  ; 
the  milch  veins  prominent,  and  the  bag  tending  far  behind  ; 
teats  long  and  large  ;  buttocks  broad  and  fleshy  ;  tail  long, 
pliable,  and  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  carcass, 
and  the  joints  short.  The  Alderney  breed  gives  a  very  rich 
milk.  The  Durham  short  horns,  however,  exceed  them  as 
respects  quantity  ;  and  we  have  the  testimony  of  the  Hon. 
Levi  Lincoln,  late  governor  of  Massachusetts,  that  the  milk 
of  Denton's  progeny,  a  branch  of  that  race,  is  not  only 
abundant,  but  of  excellent  quality.* 

Cows  should  be  milked  regularly  morning  and  evening, 
and  as  nearly  as  may  be  at  the  same  hours.  At  six  in  the 
morning  and  six  at  night  is  a  good  general  rule,  as  the  times 
of  milking  will  be  equi-distant  from  each  other.  But  if  they 
are  milked  three  times  a  day,  as  Dr.  Anderson  recommend- 
ed, the  times  may  be  five,  one,  and  eight.  He  asserted 
that  if  cows  were  fall  fed,  they  will  give  half  as  much  again 
if  milked  three  times  as  if  only  twice.  At  the  same  time,  it 
would  prevent  too  great  a  distension  of  their  bags,  to  which 
the  best  cows  are  liable. 

The  cow  which  is  desired  to  remain  in  perfection,  either 
for  milking  or  breeding,  should  not  be  exhausted  by  drawing 
her  milk  too  long  after  she  becomes  heavy  with  calf  It  is 
paying  too  dear  for  a  present  supply  of  milk.  She  should 
be  suffered  to  go  dry  at  least  two  months  before  calving. 

The  expense  of  keeping  cows  of  a  poor  breed  is  as  great 
and  sometimes  greater  than  that  of  keeping  the  best.  If 
cows  are  poorly  kept  the  difference  of  breeds  will  scarcely 
be  discernible  by  the  product  of  their  milk.  Some  have 
therefore  supposed  that  it  is  the  food  alone  which  makes  the 
odds  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk.     This  supposi- 

*  See  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  IV.  p.  318. 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  39 

tion  is  very  erroneous,  as  may  be  shown  by  feeding  two 
cows  of  a  similar  age,  size,  &c.  on  the  same  food,  the  one 
of  a  good  breed  for  milk  and  the  other  of  a  different  kind, 
and  observing  the  difference  in  the  milk  product.  No  farm- 
er, unless  he  is  very  rich,  can  afford  to  keep  poor  milch  cows. 
He  might  almost  as  well  keep  a  breed  of  '"  naked  sheep,"  such 
as  Swift  mentions  in  "  Gulliver's  Travels."  The  farmer  who 
raises  a  heifer  calf  that  is  from  a  poor  milker,  or  of  a  breed 
of  little  value,  is  as  foolish  as  he  would  be,  if,  in  clearing 
land,  he  should  burn  on  the  ground  the  birch,  maple,  and 
walnut,  and  save  white  pine  and  hemlock  for  fire  wood.  And 
yet  many  sell  the  calves  of  the  best  milch  cows  to  the  butch- 
ers, because  such  calves  are  fattest  ! 

Those  cows  which  give  the  greatest  quantity  of  thin  milk 
are  most  profitable  for  suckling  calves,  for  rich  milk  is  said 
not  to  be  so  proper  food  for  calves  as  milk  which  is  less  val- 
uable for  dairy  purposes.  Milk  which  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  cream  is  apt  to  clog  the  stomachs  of  calves  ; 
obstruction  puts  a  stop  to  their  thriving,  and  sometimes 
proves  fatal.  For  this  reason  it  is  best  that  calves  should  be 
fed  with  the  milk  whicli  first  comes  from  the  cow,  which  is 
not  so  rich  as  that  which  is  last  drawn. 

Mr.  Russel  Woodward,  in  the  "Memoirs  of  the  New 
York  Board  of  Agriculture,"  says,  "  I  have  found  that 
young  cows,  the  first  year  that  they  give  milk,  may  be  made 
with  careful  milking  and  good  keeping  to  give  milk  almost 
any  length  of  time  required.  But  if  they  are  left  to  dry  up 
early  in  the  fall,  they  will  be  sure  to  dry  up  of  their  milk 
each  succeeding  year,  if  they  have  a  calf  near  the  same 
season  of  the  year  ;  and  nothing  but  extraordinary  keeping 
will  prevent  it,  and  that  but  for  a  short  time.  I  have  had 
them  dried  up  of  their  milk  in  August,  and  could  not  by  any 
means  make  them  give  milk  much  beyond  that  time  in  any 
succeeding  years." 

A  writer  in  the  "Bath  and  West  of  England  Society's 
Papers,"  states,  that  if  at  any  time  a  good  milch  cow  should 
go  dry  before  her  milk  is  gone,  get  a  young  calf  and  put  it 
to  her  in  order  to  preserve  her  milk  against  another  year  ; 
for  it  is  well  known,  if  a  cow  goes  dry  one  year,  nature  will 
lose  its  power  of  acting  in  future. 

Cows  should  be  treated  with  great  gentleness  and  soothed 
by  mild  usages,  especially  when  young  and  ticklish,  or  when 
the  paps  are  tender  ;  in  which  case  the  udder  ought  to  be 
fomented  with  warm  water  before  milking,  and  touched  with 


40  THE   COMPLETE   FARMEK 

great  gentleness,  otherwise  the  cow  will  be  in  great  danger 
of  contracting  bad  habits,  becoming  stubborn  and  unruly, 
and  retaining  her  milk  ever  after.  A  cow  never  gives  down 
her  milk  pleasantly  to  a  person  she  dreads  or  dislikes.  The 
udder  and  paps  should  be  washed  with  warm  water  before 
milking,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  none  of  the  water  be 
admitted  into  the  milking  pail. 

The  keeping  of  cows  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  them 
give  the  greatest  quantity  of  milk,  and  with  the  greatest 
clear  profit,  is  an  essential  point  of  economy.  Give  a  cow 
half  a  bushel  of  turnips,  carrots,  or  other  good  roots  per 
day,  during  the  six  winter  months,  besides  her  hay,  and  if 
her  summer  feed  be  such  as  it  should  be,  she  will  give  near- 
ly double  the  quantity  of  milk  she  would  atTord  if  only  kept 
during  the  winter  in  the  usual  manner  ;  and  the  milk  will  be 
richer  and  of  better  quality. 

The  carrots  or  other  roots,  at  nineteen  cents  a  bushel, 
amount  to  about  eighteen  dollars  ;  the  addition  of  milk, 
allowing  it  to  be  only  three  quarts  a  day  for  three  hundred 
days,  at  three  cents  a  quart,  twenty-seven  dollars.  It  should 
be  remembered,  too,  that  when  cows  are  thus  fed  with  roots 
they  consume  less  hay,  and  are  less  liable  to  several  dis- 
eases, which  are  usually  the  effects  of  poor  keeping.* 

The  keeping  of  cows  is  very  profitable.  Allowing  one  to 
give  only  si.\  quarts  a  day,  for  forty  weeks  in  each  year,  and 
this  is  not  a  large  allowance,  her  milk  at  two  cents  per  quart 
will  amount  to  upwards  of  thirty-three  dollars  ;  which  is 
probably  sufficient  to  purchase  her  and  pay  for  a  year's 
keeping.* 

"  A  farmer  some  years  since  kept  eighteen  cows  on  a 
common,  and  was  often  obliged  to  buy  butter  for  his  family. 
The  common  was  enclosed,  and  the  same  person  supplied  his 
family  amply  with  milk  and  butter  from  the  produce  of  four 
cows  well  kept. 

"  Great  milkers  seldom  carry  much  flesh  on  their  bones, 
but  they  pay  as  they  go  and  never  retire  in  our  debt.  The 
difficulties  in  cow  keeping  are  these  :  the  expense  of  their 
food  is  considerable,  more  especially  with  respect  to  any 
which  must  be  purchased,  and  if  the  produce  be  inconsid- 
erable it  may  be  a  losing  concern.  You  may  be  feeding  a 
sparing  milker  into  flesh,  and  if  you  stint  her  or  allow  her 
only  ordinary  food  you  get  neither  flesh  nor  milk."! 

*  Farmer's  Assistant.  t  Mowbray  on  Poultry,  &c. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  41 

Amateurs  in  this  line  should  procure  the  largest  milkers, 
and  I  had  almost  said  give  them  gold,  could  they  eat  it.  In 
this  case  it  may  be  depended  on,  milk  is  always  of  more  value 
than  the  best  coiv-food  ;  and  a  cow,  the  natural  tendency  of 
which  is  to  breed  milk,  will  convert  all  nourishment,  how- 
ever dry  and  substantial,  into  that  fluid;  in  fact,  will  require 
such  solid  kind  of  nourishment  to  support  her  strength  and 
induce  her  to  take  the  bull.* 

Keep  no  more  cows  than  you  can  keep  well;  one  cow  well 
fed  will  produce  as  much  milk  as  two  indifferently  treated, 
and  more  butter;  and  if  the  cow  be  wintered  badly,  she  will 
rarely  recover,  during  the  succeeding  summer,  so  as  to  be- 
come profitable  to  the  feeder.  Cows  should  by  all  means 
be  housed  in  extreme  weather,  and  particularly  those  which 
give  milk,  or  a  failure  in  the  quantity  of  milk  will  be  expe- 
rienced. Wherefore,  instead  of  keeping  twenty  cows  poor- 
ly fed  and  but  half  of  them  stabled,  sell  ten  and  give  the 
remaining  ten  food  in  amount  equal  to  what  the  twenty  orig- 
inally had  ;  procure  constant  stabling  for  them,  and  you 
will  receive  quite  as  much  milk  and  butter  in  return  as  was 
derived  from  the  former  mode  of  treating  twenty.  Sweet 
potatoes,  carrots,  pumpkins,  and  ground  oats,  are  unques- 
tionably among  the  best  articles  for  food  for  milch  cattle  ; 
and  they  occasion  the  milk  and  butter  to  assume  a  fine 
flavor  and  color,  as  well  as  increase  of  quantity. | 

IVinter  Food  for  Cows.  Mr.  Chabert,  the  director  of  the 
veterinary  schools  of  Alfort,  had  a  number  of  cows  which 
yielded  very  great  quantities  of  milk.  In  his  publications 
on  the  subject  he  observed,  that  cows  fed  in  winter  on  dry 
substances  give  less  milk  than  those  which  are  kept  on  a 
green  diet,  and  also  that  their  milk  loses  much  of  its  quality. 
He  published  the  following  receipt,  by  the  use  of  which  his 
cows  afforded  him  an  equal  quantity  and  quality  of  milk 
during  the  winter  as  during  the  summer.  "  Take  a  bushel 
of  potatoes,  break  them  while  raw,  place  them  in  a  barrel 
standing  up,  putting  in  successively  a  layer  of  potatoes  and 
a  layer  of  bran,  and  a  small  quantity  of  yeast  in  the  middle 
of  the  mass,  which  is  to  be  left  thus  to  ferment  during  a 
whole  week,  and  when  the  vinous  taste  has  pervaded  the 
whole  mixture,  it  is  then  given  to  the  cows,  who  eat  it 
greedily." 

Pure  water  is  an  essential  article  for  cows.    Dr.  Anderson 

*  Mowbraj  on  Poultry,  &c.  t  Trenton  Emporium. 

4* 


42  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

says,  he  knew  a  man  who  acquired  great  wealth  by  attention 
to  things  of  this  nature,  and  one  of  his  principal  discoveries 
was,  the  importance  of  having  a  continued  supply  of  the 
purest  water  which  could  be  obtained  for  his  cows  ;  and 
he  would  on  no  account  permit  a  single  animal  to  set  his 
foot  in  it,  nor  allow  it  to  be  tainted  even  by  the  breath  of 
animals. 

Parsnips  cause  cows  to  give  milk  in  abundance,  and  that 
of  the  best  quality. 

Working  Coivs.  An  English  cultivator,  whose  observa- 
tions are  published  in  the  appendix  to  Plymley's  "  Survey  of 
Shropshire,"  says,  "  Cows  are  fattened  easier  and  are  bet- 
ter laborers  than  oxen.  The  uses  of  cattle  are  to  work, 
milk,  and  fatten.  I  have  seen  barren  cows  work  as  well  as 
oxen;  therj  require  less  keep  and  walk  faster.  When  first  I 
commenced  farmer,  I  followed  the  example  of  my  prede- 
cessor in  feeding  chiefly  oxen;  but  I  soon  found  that  cows 
fattened  much  faster,  and  on  less  meal,  and  for  some  years 
past  I  have  carefully  avoided  having  any  oxen  in  my 
stalls." 

Cows  which  are  shortly  expected  to  calve  ought  to  be 
lodged  at  night  in  some  convenient  place  under  cover  for  a 
week  or  two  before  calving,  as  it  might  be  the  means  of 
saving  the  life  of  the  calf,  and  perhaps  of  the  dam  likewise. 
The  day  and  night  after  a  cow  has  calved  she  should  be  kept 
under  cover,  and  her  drink  should  be  lukewarm.  Let  her 
not  be  exposed  for  some  time  to  the  dampness  of  the  night. 

Cows  which  are  near  calving  ought  to  be  fed  with  better 
and  more  substantial  food  than  usual.  Grain  of  any  kind  is 
now  useful,  but  it  should  be  crushed,  bruised,  or  coarsely 
ground.  If  the  cleaning  of  a  cow  after  calving  be  delayed, 
it  may  be  promoted,  according  to  Deane's  "  New  England 
Farmer,"by  giving  her  a  pail  of  warm  water  with  some  ashes 
in  it;  or,  according  to  "  The  Grazier's  Guide,"  the  only  thing 
to  be  given  is  toast  and  weak  wine,  or  good  cider  or  perry. 
If  wine  be  preferred,  mix  it  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water. 
This  toast  should  consist  of  four  pints  of  wine  and  water, 
and  about  a  pound  and  a  half  of  bread  toasted. 

Inflamed  teats  should  be  washed  with  two  drachms  of 
sugar  of  lead  in  a  quart  of  water.  Should  tumors  appear, 
apply  a  common  warm  mash  of  bran  with  a  little  lard. 

To  prevent  cows  from  sucking  their  own  milk,  it  is  said 
that  rubbing  the  teats  frequently  with  the  most  fetid  cheese 
that  can  be  procured  is  an  effectual  remedy. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  43 

In  order  that  it  may  be  ascertained  what  is  the  proper 
time  for  cows  to  go  dry  previous  to  their  calving,  an  ac- 
count should  be  kept  of  the  time  when  each  cow  is  put  to 
bull,  so  that  the  cow  may  be  dried  otT  in  due  season.  The 
following  prescription  for  drying  off  cows  is  given  in  Monk's 
"  Agricultural  Dictionary." 

"  Take  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum;  boil  it  in  two  quarts 
of  milk  till  it  turns  to  whey;  then  take  a  large  handful  of 
sage,  and  boil  it  in  the  whey  till  you  reduce  it  to  one  quart; 
rub  her  udder  with  a  little  of  it,  and  give  her  the  rest  by 
way  of  drink;  milk  her  clean  before  you  give  it  to  her  ; 
and  as  you  see  need  repeat  it.  Draw  a  little  milk  from 
her  every  second  or  third  day,  lest  her  udder  be  over- 
charged." 

Cow-house  or  Stable.  The  most  healthy  stables  are  those 
which  are  open  to  the  east,  or  have  an  eastern  aspect.  It  is  a 
common  practice  to  build  them  too  close.  The  stable  should 
never  be  completely  closed  up,  however  cold  the  weather 
may  be,  although  it  is  desirable  that  strong  draughts  of  cold 
or  damp  air  should  be  guarded  against,  especially  in  winter. 
It  may  be  held  as  a  general  rule,  that  stables  or  cow-houses 
are  too  close  when  on  entering  the  breath  is  affected,  or 
any  smell  of  urine  can  be  perceived. 

It  is  also  very  important  to  keep  cow-houses  or  cattle 
stables  clean  and  well  littered.  Dung  left  in  stables  soon 
renders  the  air  unwholesome,  and  is  the  cause  of  disorders. 
Cows  in  a  stable  should  be  allowed  a  square  space  of  at 
least  six  feet  each  way  for  each  cow.  Two  or  three  venti- 
lators near  the  ground  on  the  north  side  afford,  at  a  trifling 
expense,  an  excellent  way  of  renewing  or  sweetening  the 
air  in  stables  in  the  summer  time,  and  on  the  south  side  in 
winter,  without  occasioning  draughts  ;  and  these  may  be 
shut  when  necessary  by  means  of  straw,  or,  what  is  better, 
a  sliding  door. 

It  is  of  no  small  importance  that  the  floor  of  a  cow-house 
be  very  tight,  so  that  none  of  the  stale  be  lost,  which  is  of 
great  value  as  manure,  when  mixed  with  other  substances. 
A  farmer  might  as  well  lose  the  dung  as  the  urine  of  his 
beasts. 

"The  common  cattle  stalls  of  our  country  are  so  ill  con- 
trived, and  so  straitened  in  their  dimensions,  that  the  cattle 
are  constrained  to  lie  down  in  part  in  their  own  dung.  This 
dries  and  forms  a  thick  coat  on  their  hind  quarters,  from 
which  they  are  not  relieved  till  they  shed  their  hair  in  the 


44  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

spring.  They  are  thus  rendered  uncomfortable.  To  be  un- 
comfortable is  to  suffer  some  degree  of  pain  ;  and  no  one 
will  suppose  that  animals  in  pain  can  thrive,  or  preserve 
their  plight  with  the  same  food  equally  with  others  perfectly 
at  ease.  Even  hogs,  though  prone  to  wallow  in  the  mire 
in  warm  weather,  are  always  pleased  with  a  dry  bed,  and 
thrive  best  when  kept  clean."  * 

The  following,  from  the  "  Memoirs  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Agricultural  Society,"  is  extracted  from  a  letter  from  R. 
Smith  to  J.  H.  Powel,  and  will  be  of  use  in  directing  the 
most  economical  management  of  dairy  cattle. 

"  My  barn  is  constructed  according  to  the  best  Pennsyl- 
vania models.  The  yard  is  to  the  south  of  it.  On  the  east 
and  west  sides  are  cow-stables,  containing  one  hundred  and 
ten  well  made  stalls,  ventilated  by  a  sufficient  number  of 
windows  and  double  doors.  At  the  tails  of  each  range  of 
cows  there  is  a  drain  made  of  strong  planks,  and  so  fixed  as 
to  receive  all  their  dung  and  urine.  These  several  drains 
have  a  sufficient  declivity  to  carry  all  the  fluid  matter  to  their 
southern  terminations,  where  they  intersect  similar  drains, 
which  convey  all  this  liquid  manure  into  a  cistern,  fifty  feet 
long.  This  cistern  is  so  placed  and  constructed  as  to  re- 
ceive not  only  the  urine  of  the  stables,  but  also  the  liquid 
matter  of  the  farm-yard.  In  it  there  is  a  pump,  by  means 
of  which  its  contents  are  pumped  into  a  large  hogshead, 
fixed  on  a  pair  of  wheels  drawn  by  oxen.  To  the  end  of 
this  hogshead  is  attached  a  box  pierced  with  holes,  into 
which  this  liquid  manure  floats  through  a  spigot  and  faucet, 
and  is  then  sprinkled  over  the  ground  as  the  oxen  move  for- 
ward." 

Food  for  fatting  Cattle,  keephig  Stock,  S^c.  It  has  been 
often  said,  and  we  believe  correctly,  that  it  is  not  profitable, 
generally  speaking,  to  fatten  cattle  on  any  kind  of  grain. 
Lawrence  on  Neat  Cattle  asserts,  that  "corn  [by  which  is 
meant  oats,  barley,  rye,  peas,  beans,  wheat,  &c.]  cannot  be 
used  in  the  fattening  of  bullocks  and  sheep,  except  in  sea- 
sons of  superabundant  plenty.  Even  Indian  corn  is  often 
too  costly  food  to  be  used  solely,  or  principally,  for  the  prof- 
itable fattening  of  cattle  ;  and  grass,  hay,  and  roots  are  the 
materials  which  true  economy  requires. ""f  It  is,  however, 
asserted,  that  beef  fattened  on  oil  cake,  raw  potatoes,  tur- 

*  Colonel  Pickering. 

t  See  a  communication  foi  "  Tiie  New  EngUiud  Faimer,"  Vol.  I.  p.  234. 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  45 

nips,  &c.,  will  not  be  so  firm,  nor  of  so  good  a  quality,  oth- 
er things  being  equal,  as  that  which  is  fattened  on  Indian 
corn.  If  that  be  true,  it  might  be  well  to  commence  feed- 
ing with  turnips,  potatoes,  &c.,  and  give  the  animals  richer 
food  as  they  increase  in  fatness. 

An  able  writer  says,  "  With  respect  to  feeding,  the  first 
rule  is,  little  at  a  time,  and  oflen  ;  because  experience  has 
shown  that  animals  that  eat  much  in  a  short  time  do  not  fat- 
ten so  well  as  those  which  eat  less  but  more  frequently. 
The  second  rule  is,  to  begin  the  course  with  cabbage  and 
turnips,  then  to  employ  carrots  and  potatoes,  and  lastly 
Indian,  oat,  or  barley  meal.  These  aliments  ought  to  be 
varied  several  times  a  day,  and  oftener  if  convenient  ;  and 
instead  of  always  reducing  them  to  a  meal,  there  is  advan- 
tage in  sometimes  boiling  them.  A  little  salt  given  daily  is 
very  useful." 

It  would  be  advantageous  to  the  community  of  farmers  if 
something  like  the  following  experiments  were  made,  and 
their  results  published.  Let  a  number  of  cattle  of  similar 
or  the  same  breed,  age,  propensity  to  fatten,  as  ascertained 
by  handling,  &c.,  be  fattened  at  the  same  time.  Let  one  be 
fed  entirely  on  potatoes  raw  ;  a  second  on  the  same  root 
steamed  or  boiled  ;  a  third  made  one  half  or  two-thirds  fat 
on  potatoes,  and  his  fattening  completed  with  Indian  corn  ; 
a  fourth  be  fattened  on  Indian  corn,  or  corn  meal  ;  a  fifth 
be  fed  with  a  mixture  of  all  these  kinds  of  food,  given 
together  in  the  same  mess,  or  in  different  messes.  The  first 
food  in  the  morning,  for  the  last-mentioned  bullock,  might 
be  a  small  quantity  of  potatoes,  pumpkins,  or  turnips  ;  the 
second,  ruta  baga  or  carrots,  mangel-wurzel,  or  parsnips. 
Then,  as  the  last  course  of  the  day's  feast,  give  Indian  meal, 
or  other  food  the  richest  you  have.  It  would  be  well,  like- 
wise, to  try  the  virtues  of  sweet  apples.  The  most  impor- 
tant object  of  such  experiments,  however,  would  be  to  as- 
certain whether  the  beef  of  cattle  fattened  on  potatoes  or 
other  roots,  raw  or  boiled  or  steamed,  is  equal  in  quality  to 
that  which  is  fattened  on  Indian  corn.  If  not,  whether  an 
ox  may  not  be  made  nearly  fat  enough  for  profit  on  roots  and 
hay,  his  fatting  completed  on  corn,  and  the  fiesh  be  as  good 
as  if  he  had  been  fattened  wholly  on  corn.  And  if  an  ox 
partly  fattened  on  roots,  and  his  fattening  completed  on  corn, 
gives  as  good  beef  as  one  wholly  fed  on  corn,  the  question 
occurs,  hoio  long  a  time  will  it  require  to  give  the  beef  its 
good  qualities  arising  from   the   corn  ?     We  know,  as  re- 


46  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

spects  swine,  that  farmers  make  them  partly  fat  on  any  thing 
which  they  will  devour,  and  then  feed  them  for  some  time 
before  they  are  killed  with  Indian  corn  or  meal,  to  "  harden 
the  Jlesh,"  as  they  express  it  ;  and  perhaps  the  same  process 
will  answer  for  beef  cattle.  Some  farmers  say  that  the  red 
or  La  Plata  potato,  given  raw  to  sw^ine,  make  as  good  pork 
as  that  wdiich  is  corn  fed.  Others  say  that  any  kind  of  po- 
tatoes, if  steamed  or  boiled,  will  make  as  good  pork  as  can 
be  made  of  corn.  If  this  be  true  of  pork,  it  may  be  so  of 
beef 

It  is  a  truth  which  has  been  confirmed  by  repeated  exper- 
iment, that  food  for  siiine  fermented  till  it  becomes  a  little 
acid  will  go  farther  and  fatten  them  faster  than  unfermented 
food  of  the  same  quantity  and  quality.  But  it  is  not,  I  be- 
lieve, generally  known  in  this  country,  that  acid  food  is  most 
valuable  for  neat  cattle  in  certain  circumstances.  Mr. 
Bordley,  (a  celebrated  American  writer  on  Rural  Economy,) 
however,  asserts,  that  oxen  made  half  fat,  or  in  good  plight, 
on  grass  or  turnips,  are  then  finished,  in  France,  upon  a 
sour  food,  prepared  as  follows  :  rye  meal  (buckwheat  or  In- 
dian meal  may  be  tried)  with  water  is  made  into  paste,  which 
in  a  few  days  ferments  and  becomes  sour  ;  this  is  then  dilu- 
ted with  water,  and  thickened  uilh  hay,  cut  into  chaff',  which 
the  oxen  sometimes  refuse  the  first  day,  but  when  dry  they 
drink  and  prefer  it.  All  the  husbandmen  are  decidedly  of 
opinion  that  they  fatten  much  better  because  of  the  acidity. 
They  give  it  thrice  a  day,  and  a  large  ox  eats  twenty-two 
pounds  a  day.  Maize  [Indian]  meal,  or  maize  steeped  till 
it  is  sour,  should  be  tried.  This  sour  mess  is  given  during 
the  last  three  weeks  of  their  fattening,  and  they  eat  about 
seven  and  a  half  bushels  of  meal,  value  four  dollars. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  process  of  fermentation  be 
not  carried  too  far.  The  paste  should  not  become  mouldy, 
nor  the  liquid  food  in  the  slightest  degree  putrid.  We  think, 
moreover,  that  there  is  good  reason  for  waiting  till  animals 
become  "  half  fat,"  or  in  good  plight,  before  they  are  fed 
with  acid  food.  Acids,  like  alcohol,  create  appetite  by 
stimulating  the  stomach,  but  if  long  continued  they  weaken 
the  digestive  powers,  and  in  time  entirely  destroy  the  tone  of 
the  stomach.  The  animal  will  then  be  visited  with  what  in 
a  human  subject  would  be  called  dyspepsia,  or  a  want  of  the 
power  of  digestion  ;  fattening  him  will  be  out  of  the  ques- 
tion, and  he  will  be  worth  but  little  more  than  the  value  of 
his  hide.     The  constitution  of  an  ox  may  be  destroyed  by 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  47 

excessive  eating,  and  it  is  only  towards  the  close  of  his 
days,  near  the  last  stage  of  his  preparation  for  the  butcher, 
that  he  should  be  allowed  to  become  an  epicure,  and  in- 
dulged with  as  much  as  he  can  eat  of  rich  and  high-seasoned 
food. 

Store  keep  should  neither  be  too  rich  nor  too  abundant;  and 
if  an  ox  is  once  made  fat  and  then  loses  his  flesh,  he  is  like 
one  of  Pharaoh's  lean  kine,  the  more  he  devours  the  leaner 
he  becomes.  If  young  cattle  are  kept  in  rich  pastures  in 
summer  and  poor  fodder  in  winter,  sometimes  stuffed,  at  oth- 
er times  starved,  they  lose  their  disposition  to  fatten.  To 
such  cattle  Mr.  Lawrence  alludes,  when  he  says,  "  It  is  ex- 
tremely imprudent  indolently  to  continue  to  keep  at  high 
food  animals  which  do  not  thrive  ;  I  advert  chiefly  to  indi- 
viduals with  which  the  first  loss  is  always  the  least."  "  Stock 
cattle,"  said  Mr.  Bordley,  "are  kept,  others  are  fattened. 
The  feeding  is  different.  Cattle  kept  need  no  kind  of  grain, 
nor  even  hay,  unless  to  cows  about  calving  time.  Straw, 
with  any  juicy  food,  such  as  roots  or  dranh,*  abundantly  suf- 
fice for  keeping  cattle  in  heart  through  the  winter,  provided 
they  are  sheltered  from  cold  rains.  Mr.  Bakewell  kept  his 
fine  cattle  on  straw  and  turnips  through  the  winter.  A  drank 
for  keeping  cattle  may  be  made  thus  :  roots,  chaff,  or  cut 
straw,  and  salt,  boiled  together  with  a  good  quantity  of 
water  ;  the  roots  cut  or  mashed.  The  cattle  drink  the 
water  and  eat  the  rest.  Drank  for  fattening  cattle  thus  : 
roots,  meal,  flax-seed,  chaff,  or  cut  straw,  and  salt,  well 
boiled  together  in  plenty  of  water.  If  given  warm,  not  hot, 
the  better."  The  same  author  says,  "Hay,  meal,  and  lin- 
seed jelly  with  drank  must  be  excellent  food  in  stall  feeding. 
Linseed  jelly  is  thus  made  :  seven  quarts  of  water  to  one 
of  flax-seed,  steeped  in  a  part  of  the  water  forty-eight  hours, 
then  add  the  remaining  water,'  cold,  and  boil  it  gently  two 
hours,  stirring  constantly  to  prevent  burning.  It  is  cooled 
in  tubs,  and  given  mixed  with  any  meal,  bran,  or  cut  chaff. 
Each  bullock  (large)  has  two  quarts  o^  jelly  a  day  ;  equal 
to  a  little  more  than  one  quart  of  seed  in  four  days." 

In  a  tract  entitled  "  Notices  for  a  Young  Farmer,"  writ- 
ten by  the  Hon.  Judge  Peters,  formerly  president  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Society,  are  the  following  direc- 
tions : 


*  The  word  drank  is  given  us  by  Count  Runiford  for  distinguishing  tliis  com- 
position from  water. 


48  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

"  Cut  or  chaff  your  hay,  straw,  corn  tops,  or  blades,  and 
even  your  stalks,  with  a  straw  cutter,  and  you  will  save  a 
great  proportion  which  is  otherwise  wasted  or  passed  through 
the  animal  without  contributing  to  its  nourishment.  One 
bushel  of  chaffed  hay  at  a  mess,  given  in  a  trough,  three 
times  in  twenty-four  hours,  is  sufficient  for  a  horse,  ox,  or 
cow.  A  bushel  of  chaffed  hay,  lightly  pressed,  weighs  from 
jSve  to  five  and  a  half  pounds.  A  horse  or  horned  beast 
thrives  more  on  fifteen  pounds  thus  given  than  on  twenty- 
four  or  twenty-five  pounds  as  commonly  expended  (including 
waste)  in  the  usual  manner  of  feeding  in  racks;  to  which 
troughs,  properly  constructed,  are  far  preferable.*  Salt 
your  clover  and  other  succulent,  as  well  as  coarse  hay. 
But  over-salting  diminishes  the  nutriment.  More  than  a 
peck  to  a  ton  is  superfluous.  Half  that  quantity  is  often 
sufficient.  Ten  or  fifteen  pounds  is  usually  an  ample  allow- 
ance. Feeding  your  stock  by  weight  and  measure  of  food 
will  not  only  save  your  provender,  by  its  orderly  distribu- 
tion, but  frequently  save  the  lives  of  animals,  too  often 
starved  by  niggardliness  or  neglect,  or  gorged  and  destroyed 
by  profusion.  If  it  be  true,  as  it  is,  that  the  master's  eye 
makes  the  horse  fat,  it  is  equally  so,  that  the  master's  eye 
prevents  the  horse  from  being  pampered,  wanton,  pursive, 
bloated,  foundered,  and  finally  wind-broken  and  blind." 

If  hay  is  salted  by  using  salt  in  substance,  it  should  be 
done  at  the  time  it  is  deposited  in  the  mow.  It  is  often  a 
good  practice  to  sprinkle  a  solution  of  salt  in  water  over 
hay  or  other  food  for  cattle  in  the  winter  time,  especially  if 
the  fodder  be  of  an  inferior  quality. 

Colonel  Jaques,  of  Ten  Hills  farm,  Charlestown,  (Mass.) 
has  been  very  successful  in  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  neat 
cattle,  and  recommends  from  actual  experiment  the  following 
mixture  : 


T.ike  Riita  Baga,  cut  fine. 

2  bushels. 

"     Wheat  bran, 

1  bushel. 

"     Powdered  oil  cake, 

i  bushel. 

"     English  hay,  barley  straw,  and 

salt  hay,  cut,  of  each. 

7  bushels. 

"     Water, 

10  gallons. 

Let  them  be  perfectly  mixed.  Give  a  bushel  of  the  mixture 
to  a  cow  of  the  common  size  every  night  and  morning,  and 
proportionably  to  greater  or  smaller  animals. 

*  See  further,  Straw  Cutter,  under  the  head  Agricultural  Implements. 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  49 

On  soili7ig  laboring  Oxen  and  Horses.  By  soiling  do- 
mestic animals,  is  meant  keeping  them  in  yards,  &.C.,  and 
cutting  and  giving  them  grass,  with  or  without  other  green 
or  dry  food.  Instead  of  turning  your  oxen  and  horses, 
which  you  have  occasion  to  use  frequently,  into  a  pasture, 
perhaps  adorned  with  thickets  of  brushwood,  in  which  the 
animals  may  hide  themselves  beyond  the  reach  of  a  search 
warrant,  you  had  better  soil  them,  and  thus  have  them  al- 
ways at  hand.  You  must  be  careful  that  they  are  always 
well  supplied  with  water,  and  plenty  of  litter  to  absorb  the 
liquid  manure,  unless  you  have  reservoirs,  &c.  to  answer 
the  purpose  of  preventing  its  waste.  The  famous  cultivator 
Arthur  Young,  observed,  that  lucerne  is  the  best  plant  for 
soiling,  and  an  acre  of  it  will  go  farther  than  any  thing  else. 
But  clover  or  any  other  grass,  green  or  dry,  butts  of  Indian 
corn  cut  up  near  the  roots,  cabbages,  &c..  Sec,  may  often  be 
economically  disposed  of  in  soiling  cattle  or  horses,  whose 
services  are  requisite  for  the  daily  and  hourly  labors  of  the 
husbandman.  But  soiling  on  a  large  or  general  plan  will 
not  soon,  if  ever,  be  adopted  in  New  England,  where  there 
are  so  many  thousands  of  acres  of  pasture  land  which  are 
fit  for  nothing  but  grazing. 

Cooking  Food  for  Cattle.  Among  the  most  useful  im- 
provements of  modern  husbandry,  may  be  numbered  the 
practice  of  steaming  or  boiling  food  for  domestic  animals. 
Some  account  of  the  origin  of  this  practice  in  Great  Britain 
maybe  found  in  "  The  Complete  Grazier,"  an  English  work  of 
reputation,  from  which  we  have  made  the  following  extracts. 

"  Steamed  food  may  be  given  to  milch  cows  to  great  ad- 
vantage. For  this  important  fact  in  rural  economy,  we  are 
indebted  to  the  ingenious  and  persevering  experiments  of  J. 
C.  Curwin,  Esq.,  M.  P.,  whose  attention  to  the  comforts  of 
his  tenants,  and  judicious  zeal  for  the  improvement  of  agri- 
culture, are  too  well  known  to  require  any  eulogy.  In  pros- 
ecution of  a  system  which  he  had  long  practised  of  giving 
cooked  food  to  animals,  Mr.  Curwin  turned  his  attention  to 
the  cheapest  mode  of  supplying  milch  cows  with  it  ;  and  in 
a  communication  to  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of 
Arts,  &c.,  (which  was  honored  with  their  less  gold  medal,) 
he  stated  his  belief  that  he  has  at  length  been  completely  suc- 
cessful.    He  uses  a  steam  boiler  of  100  gallons'  contents,* 


*  An  engraving  of  it  is  given  in  the  thirtieth  volume  of  the  Society's  Trans- 
actions. 

5 


50  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

on  each  side  of  which  are  fixed  three  boxes,  containing 
eleven  stones*  each  of  chaff,  (the  husks  of  wheat,  rye, 
St.c.,)  which  by  being  steamed  gain  more  than  one  third  of 
their  original  weight.  The  steam  is  conveyed  by  various 
cocks  into  the  lower  part  of  the  boxes;  and  thus  two  or 
three  boxes  may  be  steamed  at  the  same  time.  The  quanti- 
ty of  fuel  required  was  about  two  pounds  for  each  stone  of 
chaff. 

"In  giving  the  steamed  chaff  to  the  cattle,  two  pounds  ot 
oil  cake  were  mixed  with  one  stone  of  chaff;  and  the  milch 
cows  are  fed  with  it  morning  and  evening,  having  an  allow- 
ance of  one  stone  at  each  time.  On  being  taken  from  the 
steamer  the  food  is  put  into  wooden  boxes,  which  are  mount- 
ed on  wheels,  to  be  drawn  to  the  place  where  it  is  intended 
to  be  used;  and  the  chaff  requires  to  stand  some  time  before 
it  is  fit  for  use. 

"The  average  milk  on  a  stock  of  thirty-six  milch  cows 
was  nearly  thirteen  wine  quarts  for  320  days.  The  cows 
were  never  suffered  to  be  turned  out;  and  to  prevent  their 
being  lame,  their  hoofs  were  properly  pared,  and  they  stood 
with  their  fore  feet  on  clay.  One  great  advantage  attending 
this  method  was,  that  most  if  not  all  the  milch  cows  were  in 
such  a  condition,  that  with  a  few  weeks'  feeding,  after  they 
were  dry,  they  became  fit  for  the  shambles,  with  very  little 
loss  from  the  first  cost.  As  a  substitute  for  chaff  and  oil 
cake,  Mr.  Curwin  recommends  cut  hay  ;  which,  when 
steamed,  would  make  very  superior  food,  and  he  entertains 
no  doubt  would  greatly  augment  the  milk  as  well  as  the 
health  of  the  animals." 

An  apparatus  for  steaming  food  for  cattle  should  be  con- 
sidered a  necessary  appendage  of  every  arable  and  dairy 
farm  of  a  moderate  size.  The  advantage  of  preparing  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  roots,  as  well  as  even  grain,  chaff,  and  hay, 
by  means  of  steaming  apparatus,  for  the  nourishment  of  cat- 
tle, begins  now  to  be  generally  understood.  It  has  been  long 
known  that  many  sorts  of  roots,  and  particularly  the  potato, 
become  much  more  valuable  by  undergoing  this  sort  of 
preparation.  And  it  is  equally  well  known,  that  when  thus 
prepared,  they  have  been  employed  alone  as  a  substitute  for 
grain,  with  cut  chaff  for  hay  and  grain,  in  the  feeding  of 
horses  as  well  as  other  animals.  To  a  farmer  who  keeps 
horses  or  cattle,  or  even  swine  or  poultry,  the  practice  of 

*  Fourteen  pounds  a  stone. 


AND   RURAL   ECONOiMlST.  51 

boiling  their  food  in  steam  is  so  great  a  saving  and  ad- 
vantage, that  it  deserves  the  most  particular  attention. 
Though  potatoes  have  often  been  given  raw  both  to  horses 
and  cattle,  they  are  found  to  be  greatly  preferable  when 
cooked  by  steam,  as  they  are  thereby  rendered  much  drier 
and  more  nutritive,  and  better  than  when  boiled  in  water  ; 
this  has  been  long  since  shown  by  the  experiments  of  Wake- 
field, of  Liverpool,  who,  in  order  to  ascertain  it,  fed  some  of 
his  horses  on  steamed  and  some  on  raw  potatoes,  and  soon 
found  the  horses  fed  on  the  steamed  potatoes  had  greatly 
the  advantage  in  every  respect.  Those  fed  on  steamed 
potatoes  looked  perfectly  smooth  and  sleek,  while  the  others 
were  quite  rough. 

A  steaming  machine  on  a  simple  and  economical  plan  con- 
sists of  a  boiler,  and  a  wooden  chest  or  box,  placed  over  or 
near  it.  The  box  may  be  of  any  size,  and  so  placed  as  to 
be  supplied  and  emptied  by  wheel  or  hand-barrows  in  the 
easiest  manner,  either  by  the  end  or  top,  or  both,  being 
made  to  open.  If  the  box  is  made  eight  feet  by  five,  and 
three  feet  deep,  it  will  hold  as  many  potatoes  as  will  feed 
fifty  cows  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  these  may  be  steamed 
in  an  hour.* 

The  practice  of  cooking  food  for  cattle  is  by  no  means  a 
novelty  in  New  England.  A  simple  apparatus  for  this  pur- 
pose much  used  is  as  follows  : 

A  kettle,  holding  twelve  gallons  or  more,  is  set  in  a  fur-^ 
nace  of  brick  or  stone,  and  over  this  a  hogshead  with  one 
head  taken  out  and  the  other  bored  full  of  holes.  This  is  set 
so  close  that  the  steam  of  the  kettle,  when  boiling,  can  only 
rise  through  the  holes,  and  thence  ascend  among  the  arti- 
cles to  be  boiled  in  the  hogshead,  and  pass  off  at  the  top.  In 
this  way  a  hogshead  of  potatoes  will  be  nearly  as  soon  boil- 
ed as  a  small  part  of  them  could  be  if  placed  in  the  kettle 
underneath. 

As  the  kettle  is  so  closed  as  to  prevent  any  steam  from 
passing  off  but  through  the  bottom  of  the  hogshead,  a  pipe 
or  tube  is  set  in  such  a  manner  that  with  the  aid  of  a  funnel 
water  may  be  poured  into  the  kettle  as  often  as  is  necessary. 
After  the  water  is  poured  in,  the  tube  is  stopped  with  a  plug 
for  that  purpose. 

Grain  of  all  kinds  may  be  steam-boiled  to  great  advantage 

*  For  a  simple  apparatus  for  steaming  food  for  cattle  and  swine,  see  a  cut 
under  tlie  head  Agricultural  Implements, 


52  THE   COMPLETE    FARJIER 

for  feeding  and  fattening  cattle;  but  in  that  case  it  is  requis- 
ite to  liave  the  bottom  of  the  hogshead  covered  with  a  cloth, 
to  prevent  the  grain  from  running  down  through  the  holes. 

In  the  fifth  volume  of  "The  New  England  Farmer,"  (p. 
306,)  are  some  notices  of  the  use  made  of  steam  in  prepar- 
ing food  for  cattle,  in  a  letter  from  R.  Smith,  Esq.,  President 
of  the  Maryland  Agricultural  Society,  on  the  management 
of  dairy  cattle,  &c.,  to  John  Hare  Powel,  Esq. 

"  For  the  purpose  of  augmenting  the  quantity  and  improv- 
ing the  quality  of  the  food  of  my  stock  of  every  kind,  I  have 
established  a  steaming  apparatus.  It  consists  of  a  boiler  and 
two  wooden  boxes,  in  which  boxes  is  steamed  the  food. 
These  boxes  contain  each  eighty  bushels.  By  this  simple 
apparatus,  every  species  of  coarse  vegetable  offal  is  convert- 
ed into  nourishing  food,  and  all  the  ordinary  provender  is 
rendered  more  nutritious. 

"  In  the  dairies  near  Philadelphia,  it  is  well  known,  that 
sweet  butter  of  the  first  quality  cannot  be  made  but  from 
cream  quicklij  produced  from  fresh  milk,  and  that  whenever 
the  milk  remains  many  days  to  produce  its  cream,  such 
cream  acquires  an  unpleasant  taste  that  is  imparted  to  the 
butter. 

"  Since  the  month  of  January,  1823,  my  dairy  people 
have  been  in  the  practice  of  always  placing  the  pans  con- 
taining the  milk  in  water  simmering  hot.  The  oily  parts 
which  constitute  the  cream  are  by  such  heat  separated  from 
the  other  ingredients,  and  then,  from  their  specific  lightness, 
they  of  course  ascend  to  the  top  in  the  form  of  cream. 
Cream  is  thus  obtained  during  the  coldest  weather  in  winter 
in  the  course  of  about  twelve  hours  after  the  milk  has  been 
taken  from  the  cows.  And  the  operation  of  churning  such 
cream  never  exceeds  twenty-five  minutes.  The  milk  pans 
remain  in  the  hot  water  about  thirty  minutes.  The  butter 
has  invariably  been  of  a  fine  flavor,  and  of  a  beautiful  yel- 
low color  ;  and,  in  the  nature  of  things,  it  never  can  be 
otherwise,  unless  the  dairy  woman  should  be  utterly  igno- 
rant of  the  art  of  making  sweet  butter. 

"  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  state  to  you,  that  the  skim-milk 
under  this  process  is  a  very  pleasant  beverage.  In  summer 
and  winter  it  bears  the  agitation  of  a  carriage  without  be- 
coming sour.  And  every  morning  through  the  year  a  per- 
son comes  to  the  farm  and  takes  from  250  to  300  quarts,  for 
which  he  pays  two  cents  per  quart,  cash,  and  on  the  same 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  55 

hay  he  retails  the  whole  among  the  people  of  the  town,  at 
three  cents  per  quart. 

"  The  hot  water  in  which  the  milk  pans  are  placed  is  con- 
tained in  large  flat  wooden  vessels,  attached  to  a  stove.  The 
water  is  heated  by  means  of  a  flat  tube  fastened  to  the  side, 
and  near  to  the  bottom  of  each  vessel,  and  introduced  through 
an  aperture  into  the  stove.  The  heat  of  the  stove  affords 
the  additional  advantage  of  preserving  in  the  dairy  house 
the  requisite  temperature  during  the  winter  season. 

"  The  dairy  house  is  a  stone  building,  consisting  of  three 
spacious  apartments  for  the  preservation  of  the  milk,  the 
cream,  and  the  butter,  and  for  the  making  of  the  butter. 
Two  of  these  apartments  are  under  ground  and  arched,  and 
properly  ventilated.  To  the  south  side  is  attached  a  con- 
venient shed,  with  the  requisite  shelves,  and  with  a  copper 
boiler  for  washing  and  keeping  in  good  and  sweet  condition 
all  the  dairy  utensils.     In  front  is  a  pent  house." 

Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  recommends  using  a  boiler  instead  of  a 
wooden  vessel  for  cooking  food  for  swine.  He  observes,  "  I 
have  thrown  by  my  steamer  for  hog  food  and  substituted  a 
boiler.  The  former  consisted  of  a  sixty  gallon  cask,  over  a 
potash  kettle  badly  set.  I  could  only  work  off  four  or  five 
casks  a  day,  with  great  labor  and  trouble,  and  the  appa- 
ratus required  to  be  luted  with  clay  at  every  operation. 
With  my  new  kettle,  holding  thirty  gallons,  which  is  a  thin 
and  beautiful  casting,  I  have  cooked  eight  and  nine  barrels 
in  half  a  day,  and  much  better  than  by  the  steam  process. 
This  food  consists  of  small  refuse  potatoes,  of  which  I  have 
nearly  100  bushels,  or  fifteen  per  cent,  of  my  whole  crop, 
pumpkins,  and  a  small  quantity  of  Indian  meal.  A  half 
day's  boiling  serves  my  hog  family  for  four  or  five  days;  and 
it  is  always  kept  prepared  in  advance.  The  actual  expense 
of  fattening  hogs  thus,  upon  the  refuse  of  the  farm  crop,  is 
fifty  to  seventy-five  per  cent,  less  than  feeding  with  dry 
corn. 

"  The  economy  of  my  apparatus  consists  much  in  setting 
the  boiler  so  as  to  have  all  the  advantage  of  the  fire.  The 
interior  brick  work  is  made  to  conform  to  the  shape  of  the 
boiler,  leaving  an  interval  of  four  to  six  inches  between 
them  for  the  fire,  round  the  whole  exterior  of  the  kettle, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  inches  at  top,  where  the  flange 
or  rim  rests  upon  the  projecting  bricks.  Thus  the  boiler  is 
not  only  encompassed  by  the  flame,  but  the  heat  is  augment- 
ed by  radiation  from  the  brick  work.  The  fuel  is  burnt  on 
5* 


'54  THE  COaiPLETE   FARMER 

a  grate,  which  extends  nearly  to  the  kettle,  four  or  five  in- 
ches above  the  level  of  its  bottom.  My  boiler  being  in  ope- 
ration while  I  am  preparing  these  remarks,  I  have  ascer- 
tained, that  a  kettle  of  potatoes  with  three  pails  of  cold 
water,  covered  with  boards,  has  been  completely  boiled  in 
eighteen  minutes  from  the  time  they  were  put  in,  another 
boiling  having  been  just  previously  taken  out.  My  kettle 
was  set  by  a  son  in  his  teens,  without  assistance,  and  was 
his  first  effort  in  masonry." 

In  cooking  for  cattle,  however,  when  hay  and  other  bulky 
articles  of  food  are  prepared  by  heat,  steam  will  be  found 
the  best  medium.  Care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  vessel 
in  which  the  steaming  is  effected  so  tight  that  the  steam 
cannot  egcape  till  it  becomes  quite  hot  and  elastic.  A  cover 
of  good  weight  sitting  close,  but  capable  of  being  raised  a 
little  by  steam  of  high  pressure,  may  be  made  to  operate 
like  a  safety  valve,  and  at  the  same  time  confine  the  steam 
till  it  exceeds  212  degrees,  the  heat  of  boiling  water.  Any 
food  is  better  when  cooked  by  steam  of  a  high  temperature, 
than  when  merely  soaked  in  an  artificial  fog,  not  much 
warmer  than  a  mist  which  caps  the  hills  on  a  summer's 
morninff. 


CALVES.  Calves  designed  for  veal  should  be  taken 
from  the  cow  the  next  day  after  they  are  calved.  They 
should  be  permitted  to  suck  only  two  teats  during  the  first 
week,  three  during  the  second,  and  should  have  the  whole 
of  the  milk  the  third  and  fourth  week,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  they  will  be  fit  to  kill.  The  teats  not  allowed  to  be 
sucked  should  be  previously  milked. 

When  calves  are  to  be  reared,  some  permit  them  to  run 
with  the  cow,  and  take  all  the  milk  the  first  season.  But 
fine  animals  are  raised  without  taking  any  milk  from  the  cow 
after  three  or  four  days.  They  should  have  more  or  less 
milk  for  about  twelve  weeks.  They  may  be  fed  with  skim- 
med milk  or  water  gruel  after  the  first  fortnight  ;  or  hay  tea 
may  be  mixed  with  their  milk,  or  their  milk  may  be  mixed 
with  meal  and  water.  After  a  calf  has  sucked  or  drank 
milk  for  the  space  of  a  month,  take  some  fresh  and  sweet 
hay,  and  put  small  locks  of  it  into  cleft  sticks,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  calf  can  easily  have  access  to  them,  and  he 
will  soon  learn  to  eat  hay. 

Whether  calves  are  intended  to  be  fattened  or  to  be  reared, 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  55 

it  is  best  to  feed  them  three  times  a  day.  But  whether  they 
are  fed  two  or  three  times,  the  intervals  between  their  meals 
should  be  regular,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  equi-distant. 

'J"he  method  for  rearing  calves  pursued  by  Mr.  Crook,  as 
mentioned  in  "The  Letters  and  Papers  of  the  Bath  and 
West  of  England  Society,"  is  as  follows  :  He  purchased 
three  gacks  of  linseed,  value  '21.  2s.,  (equal  to  about  nine 
dollars,)  which  lasted  him  three  years.  One  quart  of  seed 
was  boiled  in  six  quarts  of  water  for  ten  minutes,  to  a  jelly, 
which  was  given  to  the  calves  three  times  a  day  mixed  with 
a  little  hay  tea.  And  he  states,  that  his  calves  throve  much 
better  than  those  of  his  neighbours,  which  were  fed  with 
milk.  Thus  it  seems,  that  less  than  eighteen  cents'  worth  of 
ffax-seed,  with  a  trifle  of  hay,  is  sutficient  for  one  calf. 
Linseed  oil  cakes,  when  pulverized  and  boiled,  make  an 
equally  good  broth  or  jelly. 

If  skim-milk  is  given  to  calves  it  should  be  boiled,  and 
suffered  to  stand  till  it  cools  to  the  temperature  of  that  first 
given  by  the  cow.  It  is  better  boiled  than  when  warmed 
only.  If  the  milk  be  given  too  cold  it  will  cause  the  calf  to 
purge.  If  this  is  the  case,  put  two  or  three  spoonfuls  of 
runnet  into  the  milk,  and  it  will  stop  the  looseness.  If  the 
calf  is  bound,  pork  broth  is  said  to  be  a  good  and  safe  thing 
to  put  into  the  milk. 

Dr.  Deane  was  of  opinion,  that  it  was  better  to  wean 
calves  on  hay  than  on  grass.  "  They  are  more  docile  when 
raised  in  the  barn,  and  thrive  better."  A  Mr.  John  Gordon 
says,  that  "  calves  should  not  be  suffered  to  eat  any  grass  the 
first  year,  and  from  experience  I  find  it  much  the  cheapest 
to  keep  them  shut  up  and  feed  them,  as  the  land  sufficient 
to  pasture  one  will  produce  hay  enough  to  feed  two  calves 
through  the  year,  and  pay  the  expense  of  cultivation,  and 
one  year's  growth  will  certainly  be  added  to  the  cattle."* 

It  is  not  probable,  however,  that  many  of  our  farmers  will 
incur  the  trouble  of  raising  calves  in  a  barn  :  therefore, 
"  when  calves  are  put  in  a  pasture,  it  should  be  such  as  is 
dry  and  sweet.  White  clover  is  the  best  for  them  ;  red  clo- 
ver or  trefoil  is  also  good.  Mr.  L.  Hommedieu  recommends 
that  there  be  no  water  in  the  pasture,  but  sufficient  shade. 
The  effect  of  this  is,  that  the  calves  learn  to  feed  at  night,  or 
when  the  dew  is  on,  and  lie  by  in  the  day  ;  and  as  the  grass 
while  wet  with  dew  is  believed  to  be   most  nourishing,  they 

*  jMassachusetts  Agricultural  Reports,  Vol.  V.  p.  78. 


56  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

will  in  this  way  thrive  much  better  than  those  which  have 
free  access  to  water  ;  for  this,  it  is  contended  by  Mr.  L. 
Hommedieu,  has  a  tendency  to  stunt  them,  and  make  them 
pot-bellied.  Probably  the  better  way  is,  to  give  them  a  lit- 
tle nourishing  drink  at  certain  times,  when  the  dews  fail,  or 
at  mid-day,  when  the  weather  is  very  warm."* 

The  best  calves  for  bringing  up,  are  those  calved  early  in 
the  season,  or  before  June.  "When  calves  are  weaned, 
they  should  not  be  suffered  to  be  with  their  dams  any  more 
till  fall  ;  neither  should  they  be  pastured  within  sight  or 
hearing  of  them.  It  will  cause  them  to  neglect  their  feed- 
ing ;   and  they  will  not  forget  their  sucking. 

"  At  the  setting  in  of  cold  nights  in  autumn,  calves  must 
be  nightly  housed  ;  and  not  be  out  early  in  the  morning,  ndV 
late  in  the  evening.  And  as  the  pinching  cold  of  winter 
will  be  extremely  detrimental  to  them,  they  should  be  kept 
very  warm  in  their  house,  well  supplied  with  water,  and  let 
out  only  on  the  warmest  days.  A  great  deal  of  care  is 
necessary  to  bring  them  through  the  first  winter,  which  is 
the  most  dangerous  period  of  their  lives.  They  will  acquire 
so  much  strength  during  the  following  summer  that  they 
will  have  nothing  to  fear  from  the  cold  of  a  second  winter." 
—  Buffon,  Hisloire  JVaturelle. 

"  The  American  Farmer  "  gives  the  following  method  of 
making  hai/  tea  for  calves.  Take  about  a  pound  of  red  clo- 
ver hay,  well  got  in,  and  si.x  quarts  of  clear  spring  water  ; 
boil  them  together  till  the  water  is  reduced  to  four  quarts  ; 
then  take  out  the  hay  and  mix  a  pound  of  barley,  oat,  bean, 
[or  Indian]  meal  amongst  a  little  water,  put  it  in  the  pot  or 
cauldron  while  boiling,  and  keep  it  constantly  stirring  until 
it  is  thickened.  Let  it  cool,  then  give  it  to  the  calf,  adding 
as  much  whey  as  will  make  a  sufficient  meal. 

To  make  calves  lie  quiet,  more  especially  during  a  tempo- 
rary scarcity  of  milk,  balls  made  of  wheat  flour,  and  a  sufti- 
cient  quantity  of  gin  to  form  it  into  a  paste,  are  recommend- 
ed by  Mr.  Marshall;  three  balls  about  the  size  of  walnuts 
to  be  given  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before  each  meal. 
The  effect  is,  that  instead  of  wasting  themselves  by  incessant 
"bawling,"  they  lie  quiet,  sleeping  a  principal  part  of  the 
time.  Probably,  Indian  or  rye  meal,  mixed  up  with  gin, 
whiskey,  or  other  cheap  spirit,  might  answer  a  good  purpose 
as  an  occasional  expedient.  We  should  not  advise,  however, 

*  Farmer's  Assistant. 


AND   RUIIAL   ECONOMIST.  37 

to  often  diet  calves  in  that  manner,  unless  they  were  intend- 
ed for  the  butcher;  for  we  should  be  apprehensive  that  feed- 
ing them  with  such  nice  messes  would  render  them  too  deli- 
cate and  mcalij  mouthed  to  become  hardy  and  prolitable  cattle. 
Young  advises,  when  calves  are  troubled  with  scouring,  to 
give  them  powdered  chalk  and  wheat  meal,  worked  into  a 
ball  with  gin. 

The  following  is  the  mode  of  rearing  calves  adopted  by 
the  Shakers,  in  Canterbury,  N.H.,  communicated  in  a  letter 
from  Mr.  Francis  \Vinkley  to  iNIr.  Levi  Bartlett,  of  Warren, 
New  Hampshire,  and  published  in  "  The  New  England 
Farmer,"  (V^ol.  II.  p.  305.) 

"  We  let  calves  that  come  in  the  fore  part  of  March  suck 
about  a  week  or  ten  days,  then  take  them  from  the  cow,  giv- 
ing them  a  moderate  allowance  of  new  milk  to  drink,  till 
they  have  learned  to  drink  it  freely;  then  put  in  some  skim- 
med milk  ;  and  we  feed  them  wholly  with  skimmed  milk, 
taking  care  to  give  it  at  about  the  temperature  of  milk  taken 
directly  from  the  cow,  by  heating  a  part  of  it  and  mixing  it 
with  the  rest.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  scald  the  milk 
when  heated;  also  not  to  give  them  any  sour  milk,  for  this 
will  make  them  scour.  The  trough  or  vessel  in  which  they 
drink  their  milk  should  likewise  be  kept  clean,  and  not  suf- 
fered to  become  sour. 

"  We  let  the  milk  stand  about  twelve  hours  before  it  is 
skimmed;  giving  a  calf  at  first  about  four  quarts  night  and 
morning;  increasing  the  mess  as  need  requires  till  he  is  six 
weeks  old,  from  which  time  till  ten  weeks  old  he  will  re- 
quire, perhaps,  about  twelve  quarts  per  day. 

"  When  about  ten  weeks  old,  we  begin  to  di.minish  the 
quantity  of  milk  for  about  the  space  of  two  or  three  weeks, 
at  which  time  we  wean  them.  During  the  whole  process 
from  two  to  fourteen  weeks  of  age,  calves  should  be  well 
supplied  with  good  hay,  salt,  and  provender;  such  as  oats, 
wheat  bran,  and  oil  cake,  ground  fine. 

"The  particular  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  above 
method  of  treatment  are  the  following  : 

"1.  It  is  much  cheaper  than  to  let  them  suck  in  the  ordi- 
nary way;  whereas  it  makes  a  great  saving  of  cream  for 
butter,  and  that  without  injuring  the  calves,  if  they  are  prop- 
erly attended  to. 

"2.  It  prevents  calves  from  moaning  or  pining  so  much 
while  weaning,  as  they  would  otherwise  do,  when  taken  from 
the  cows. 


68  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

"3.  It  not  only  prevents  the  cows  being  injured  in  conse- 
quence of  the  calves  biting  the  teats,  but  also  prevents  their 
holding  back  the  milk  from  the  milker,  which  often  serves  to 
diminish  the  quantity  of  milk  afterwards. 

"The  only  disadvantage  to  be  found  in  the  above  method 
of  treatment  is,  that  it  requires  some  more  labor  to  feed 
them,  where  they  thrive  equally  well  in  every  respect  as 
those  do  which  are  permitted  to  suck  in  the  ordinary  way." 

The  following  is  from  "The  United  States  Gazette." 

"  Among  the  modern  improvements  in  farming,  the  dairy 
has  of  late  years  been  very  much  neglected.  So  much  of 
the  profit  of  breeders  depending  upon  the  facility  with  which 
the  milk  of  the  cow  may  be  reserved  during  the  sucking 
time  of  the  calf,  the  following  substitute,  used  in  Germany, 
for  the  natural  food  of  the  young  progeny,  may  be  accep- 
table to  our  country  readers. 

"  Let  as  much  water  be  heated  on  the  fire  as  the  calf  will 
be  disposed  to  drink,  and  when  it  boils  throw  one  or  two 
handfuls  of  oat  meal*  into  it,  and  after  continuing  in  that 
state  for  one  minute,  take  it  oflf,  and  let  it  be  cooled  to  the 
temperature  of  new  milk,  when  one  or  two  pints  of  skimmed 
milk  are  to  be  added  to  it.  With  this  beverage,  the  young 
animal  will  fatten  and  thrive  prodigiously:  the  milk  of  the 
parent  will  be  applied  to  the  dairy,  and  the  intelligent  far- 
mer will  immediately  discover  the  great  advantage  to  be 
derived  in  the  produce  of  the  dairy  from  such  an  expedi- 
ent." 

Willich's  "Encyclopedia"  observes,  "  In  order  to  make 
calves  fine  and  fat,  the  best  and  most  efficacious  way  is,  to 
keep  them  as  clean  as  possible,  by  elevating  their  coops  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  sun  may  not  have  too  great  power 
over  them,  and  to  such  a  height  above  the  level  of  the 
ground  that  their  urine  may  pass  off;  by  giving  them  fresh 
litter  every  day,  and  suspending  over  the  coop  a  large  chalk- 
stone,  so  that  they  can  easily  lick  it.  Besides  this,  it  is 
usual  to  bleed  them  when  they  are  about  a  month  old,  and 
again  just  before  they  are  slaughtered;  which  practice  tends 
in  a  considerable  degree  to  the  beauty  and  whiteness  of  the 
flesh,  and  is  therefore  more  frequently  repeated  by  some 
farmers;  [in  England;]  but  this  is  not  altogether  necessary; 
twice  bleeding  being  fully  sufficient  for  that  purpose,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  most  experienced  breeders.     It  is,  however, 

*  Indian  meal  will^o  as  well. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  59 

to  be  observed,  that  those  calves  which  are  intended  for 
bulls  or  for  oxen  should  be  selected  as  soon  as  possible;  as 
the  operation  necessary  to  make  them  oxen  should  not  be 
deferred  till  the  calves  are  more  than  twenty  days  old. 

A  writer  for  "The  New  England  Farmer,"  with  the  sig- 
nature .S.  X.,  (Vol.  VIII.  p.  76,)  observes,  that  "A  very 
intelligent  practical  farmer  states,  that  he  considers  nothing 
more  conducive  to  the  thriving  of  sucking  calves  than  to 
keep  in  their  pen  an  ample  supply  of  dry  yellow  loam,  of 
which  they  are  at  liberty  to  eat  freely  as  they  choose.  They 
will  eat  it  eagerly,  and  he  regards  it  of  more  value  than 
Indian  meal.  There  is  no  better  evidence  of  its  utility  than 
the  fact  that  no  man's  calves  find  a  readier  sale  or  bring  a 
higher  price  in  our  market  than  his.  The  philosophy  of  it 
we  do  not  pretend  to  explain." 

Moubray  says,  "  The  calf  may  be  sold  (or  taken  from  the 
cow)  as  soon  as  it  has  drawn  the  biestings  or  first  milk,  un- 
less any  coring  or  defect  in  the  cow's  udder  or  teats  may 
render  it  desirable  for  the  calf  to  suck  a  few  days,  in  order 
that  the  action  may  clear  oft'  any  obstructions,  for  which  the 
butting  of  the  calf's  head  is  generally  the  best  remedy.  If 
intended  to  be  fattened  for  the  butcher,  it  must  be  kept  in  a 
pen  particularly  dry  and  clean;  suckled  twice  a  day  at  regu- 
lar hours;  always  have  the  first,  which  is  the  thinnest  of 
the  milk,"  and  not  be  permitted  to  overcharge  its  jstomach. 
Lumps  of  soft  chalk  are  usually  placed  for  the  calf  to  lick, 
as  an  absorbent  to  neutralize  the  acidities  engendered  in  the 
stomach  from  feeding  on  milk.  It  seldom  pays  to  fatten  a 
calf  beyond  ten  or  twelve  weeks. 

"  Weaning  and  rearing  Calves.  A  calf  may  be  weaned  by 
being  gradually  accustomed  to  suck  milk  in  a  pail  through 
the  fingers.  Many  are  reared  on  very  little  milk  mixed  with 
hay  tea,  linseed,  or  other  slops;  fed  on  straAv  in  the  winter, 
and  in  summer  on  the  common:  such  cannot  be  expected  to 
turn  to  much  account.  The  best  cattle  are  reared  from  the 
teats,  well  wintered  in  good  shelter,  and  full  fed  until  they 
attain  their  growth.  Warmth  and  dry  lodging  are  of  the 
utmost  consequence  to  the  improvement  of  all  young  ani- 
mals. Calves  may,  however,  be  reared  to  good  profit,  by 
being  suffered  to  suck_  a  very  moderate  quantity  daily,  the 
bulk  of  their  food  consisting  of  skimmed  milk,  thickened 
with  oat  or  wheat  meal;  their  winter  food  being  carrots  or 
Swedish  turnips  sliced,  and  cut  straw,  with  a  small  quantity 
of  hay,  daily." 


GO  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

"The  Grazier's  Guide"  observes,  "  If  tlie  calf  be  in- 
tended for  the  butcher,  it  mav  be  taken  from  the  cow  in 
about  a  week  or  ten  days,  and  fed  the  remainder  of  the  time 
by  hand  ;  but  the  time  of  taking  the  calf  away  must  be  deter- 
mined bv  the  state  of  the  cow's  udder;  for  unless  that  be 
free  from  kernels  and  indurations,  the  calf  must  be  allowed 
to  suck,  as  the  jolting  of  its  head  is  the  means  of  healing  or 
restoring  the  udder,  and  preventing  the  downfall  or  inflam- 
mation in  this  part,  which  might  cause  much  trouble,  and 
even  endanger  the  life  of  the  cow. 

"But  if  the  calf  is  intended  to  be  reared,  it  should  not  be 
weaned  until  at  least  six  weeks  or  even  two  months  old, 
whether  male  or  female.  For  such,  there  is  no  food  like  the 
cow's  milk;  and  if  she  does  not  yield  a  sufficient  quantity, 
that  of  another  ought  to  be  had  recourse  to.  It  is  an  incon- 
trovertible fact,  that  the  longer  a  calf  sucks,  not  only  the 
larger  and  stronger  will  it  become,  but  it  will  also  acquire  a 
much  better  form  and  more  robust  health." 

Calves  which  come  early  should  be  preferred  for  the  rear- 
ing. Those  Avhich  come  late,  do  not  acquire  sufficient 
strength  to  bear  the  cold  of  winter;  they  languish,  and  are 
reared  with  difficulty.  Calves  should  not  be  weaned  too 
suddenly,  but  by  little  and  little.  The  less  they  are  able  to 
eat,  the  more  they  should  be  allowed  to  suck;  after  a  while 
they  may  be  brought  to  take  it  from  the  pail.  This  is  done 
by  placing  the  hand  in  the  milk,  with  the  palm  upwards,  and 
under  the  milk,  while  the  fingers  are  raised  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  milk  for  the  calf  to  lay  hold  of  with  its  mouth, 
which  it  does  very  readily,  and  sucks  up  the  milk  with  great 
ease. 

When  they  are  completely  taken  away,  they  should  be 
fed  with  a  little  bran,  and  some  of  the  best  soft  and  fragrant 
hay  of  the  second  crop  ;  they  should  be  allowed  plenty  of 
the  skimmed  milk,  and  now  and  then  a  little  water  in  which 
barley  has  been  boiled  and  broken  up,  or  a  little  buttermilk 
occasionally.  There  is  at  first  some  difficulty  in  bringing 
them  to  drink,  but  a  little  perseverance  will  accustom  them 
to  it. 

INIoderate  warmth  and  dry  lodging  are  of  the  utmost  con- 
sequence to  young  calves  ;  and  if  we  would  turn  them  to 
any  good  account,  they  must  not  be  stinted  either  in  these 
or  in  their  food.  Calves  which  have  recently  been  weaned 
and  are  not  at  pasture  should  be  fed  often,  at  least  three 
times,  and  it  is  better  five  times  a  day.     As  soon  as  they  are 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  61 

fit  to  follow  the  mother  they  should  be  let  out,  as  they  are 
greatly  benefited  by  air  and  exercise.  Calves  sometimes  ac- 
quire a  habit  of  sucking  one  another,  of  which  trick  they 
may  be  broken  by  separating  them. 

Calves  cannot  be  kept  too  clean,  nor  have  fresh  litter  too 
often.  If  they  are  suffered  to  lie  on  their  own  dung  and 
urine,  they  will  become  mangy,  and  scarcely  ever  thrive. 
They  are  subject  to  several  disorders,  such  as  diarrhoea, 
dysentery,  costiveness,  &c.  As  a  means  of  preventing  the 
greater  number  of  the  diseases  to  which  they  are  liable,  the 
following  rules  are  prescribed  in  "The  Farmer's  and  Gra- 
zier's Guide." 

"  1st.  Let  the  young  calf  suck  the  first  milk.  This  will 
cleanse  its  bowels,  and  prevent  costiveness. 

"  2d.  Let  it  suck  from  its  mother  at  least  two  months,  and 
then  wean  it  gradually. 

"3d.  Let  its  first  food  be  such  as  is  easy  of  digestion, 
and  let  it  have  plenty  of  sweet  skimmed  milk  and  good  hay. 

"4th.  Keep  it  very  clean,  well  rubbing  it  occasionally 
witVi  a  wisp  of  hay  or  straw. 

"  5th.  Keep  its  stable  clean,  and  perfectly  free  from  all 
impurities. 

"  6th.  Let  it  have  gentle  exercise  ;  the  best  will  be  fol- 
lowing the  mother  in  the  meadow  or  pasture. 

7th.  Do  not  stint  it  either  in  good  food  or  good  drink,  and 
change  its  litter  often  enough  to  keep  it  clean,  sweet,  and 
dry." 


OXEN.  Till  oxen  are  four  years  old  they  are  usually 
called  steers  ;  afterwards  oxen.  The  signs  of  a  good  ox, 
according  to  Dr.  Deane,  are  these  :  thick,  soft,  smooth,  and 
short  hair  ;  a  short  and  thick  head  ;  glossy,  smooth  horns  ; 
large  and  shaggy  ears  ;  wide  forehead  ;  full,  black  eyes  ; 
wide  nostrils  ;  black  lips  ;  a  thick  fleshy  neck  and  large 
shoulders  ;  broad  reins  ;  a  large  belly  ;  thick  rump  and 
thighs  ;  a  straight  back  ;  a  long  tail,  well  covered  with  hair; 
short  and  broad  hoofs.  The  best  colors  are  brown,  dark 
red,  and  brindled.  When  an  ox  has  completed  his  eighth 
year  he  should  be  fattened. 

If  oxen  are  worked  in  the  yoke  in  wet  weather,  their  necks 
are    apt  to    become    sore.     To  prevent  this,  a  little   tallow 
should  be  rubbed  on  the   parts  of  the  yoke  which  lie  upon 
their  necks,  and  also  on  the  bows. 
6 


62  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

The  following  remarks  on  the  management  of  working 
oxen,  are  from  "The  New  England  Farmer,"  Vol.  VI.  p. 
191. 

*'  Do  not  retard  the  growth  of  your  beasts  of  draught,  en- 
danger their  health,  and  render  them  insignificant  in  the  eyes 
of  many,  by  working  them  hard  while  young.  But  the 
younger  they  are  inured  to  light  work,  the  more  docile  they 
will  generally  become. 

"An  English  writer  recommends  carding  oxen,  and  says 
'  the  ox,  after  the  sensation  becomes  familiar,  receives  pleas- 
ure from  the  operation,  and  will  momentarily  forego  his 
meal  to  receive  the  full  enjoyment.  His  feeder  perceives 
this,  and  brushes  the  part  which  gives  the  most  pleasure. 
The  ox  shows  his  gratitude  by  wagging  his  tail  ;  the  feeder 
in  return  calls  him  by  name,  and  ingratiates  himself  with 
him.  Thus  not  only  an  intimacy  but  a  mutual  affection  is 
formed,  which  at  once  gives  attention  to  the  keeper  and  do- 
cility to  the  ox,  and  renders  the  labors  of  both  pleasant.' 

"  Their  labor  and  their  fodder  ought  to  be  proportioned, 
that  their  health  and  their  spirits  may  be  kept  in  full  tone. 
Their  coats  ought  to  be  sleek  ;  their  hides  loose  and  silky  ; 
the  flank  should  fill  the  hand,  and  the  shoulder  handle  mel- 
low. If  they  be  overworked  or  underfed,  sluggishness  and 
disease  will  inevitably  follow.  A  working  ox  ought  always 
to  be  beef,  that  in  case  of  accident  he  may  be  fit  for  the 
table." 

The  common  mode  of  working  oxen  by  a  yoke,  has  been 
condemned  by  many  agricultural  writers.  Mr.  Cooper,  an 
Englishman,  according  to  Young's  "Eastern  Tour,"  used 
collars  on  oxen  as  on  horses,  except  that  they  were  buckled 
on  with  the  narrow  and  open  end  downward.  They  draw  in 
harness  abreast,  in  pairs,  single,  or  in  a  line,  and  icalk  as  fast 
as  horses.  Mr.  Bordley  said,  he  "  saw  a  wagon  in  Pennsyl- 
vania drawn  by  two  bulls  and  two  oxen,  bridled  and  geered 
in  harness  and  collars." 

It  appears,  by  a  work  entitled  "Letters  from  Cuba,"  by 
Dr.  Abiel  Abbot,  that  in  managing  the  oxen  of  that  island, 
the  yoke  is  made  fast  to  the  horns,  "  near  the  root,  behind, 
so  that  it  does  not  play  backward  and  forward,  and  gives  to 
the  oxen  a  similar  but  better  chance  of  backing,  (as,  in 
teamster's  phrase,  it  is  called.)  I  have  been  astonished  at 
the  power  of  those  oxen  in  holding  back.  There  is  a  short 
hill  in  one  of  the  streets  of  this  city,  at  an  angle  nearly  of 
forty-five  degrees.     Standing  at  the  foot  of  it,  I  saw  a  cart 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  63 

and  oxen  approaching  at  the  top,  with  three  hogsheads  of 
molasses,  and  the  driver  sitting  on  the  forward  cask.  The 
driver  did  not  so  much  as  leave  his  perch  ;  the  oxen  went 
straight  and  fearlessly  over  the  pitch  of  the  hill,  and  it 
seemed  as  if  they  must  he  crushed  to  death.  The  animals 
squatted  like  a  dog,  and  rather  slid  than  walked  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hill.  Have  we  any  animals  that  could  have  done 
it  ?  And  if  they  could,  have  we  any  docile  enough  to  have 
done  it  with  the  driver  in  the  cart  }  Thus  superior  is  this 
mode  of  yoking  in  holding  back  the  load  in  difficult  places. 

"  It  gives  them  still  more  decisive  advantage  in  drawing, 
A  fillet  of  canvas  is  laid  on  the  front  below  the  horns  ;  and 
over  this  fillet  the  cords  pass,  and  the  animal  presses  against 
the  most  invulnerable  part  of  his  frame  ;  his  head,  his  neck, 
his  whole  frame  are  exerted  in  the  very  manner  in  which  he 
exerts  his  mighty  strength  in  combat.  It  is  the  natural  way, 
therefore,  of  availing  yourself  of  this  powerful  and  patient 
animal  to  the  best  advantage." 

A  writer  for  "  The  Genesee  Farmer  "  observes,  that  "the 
frequent  abuse  of  our  laboring  animals  by  those  who  receive 
the  benefits  of  their  labors,  and  who  ought  in  return  to  treat 
them  mercifully,  has  often  given  me  great  pain.  I  have  em- 
ployed in  the  course  of  my  business  a  great  many  men  and 
teams,  both  with  oxen  and  horses,  and  I  never  yet  knew  a 
bawling,  noisy,  whipping  teamster  who  did  a  great  day's 
work  ;  nor  have  I  scarcely  known  such  a  one  who  kept  a 
fat  team.  The  best  man  who  ever  did  me  any  labor  was  a 
good  substantial  farmer  ;  his  oxen  were  always  fat,  and  spry 
as  colts  ;  he  would  never  hitch  them  to  any  thing  which  he 
knew  they  could  not  draw  ;  of  course  they  were  not  dis- 
couraged ;  and  he  hardly  ever  spoke  to  them  louder  than  in 
a  low  tone  of  common  conversation.  He  would  frequently 
talk  to  them  soothingly,  and  encourage  them  when  he  had  a 
hard  job  on  hand,  which  was  often  the  case.  Afler  making 
a  heavy  pull  he  would  sometimes  pat  them  on  the  back,  but 
I  rarely  ever  knew  him  to  strike  or  worry  his  team.  He 
carried  a  slender  goad  with  a  short  lash  to  guide  them  with, 
and  a  mere  swing  of  the  whip  was  sufficient  for  his  purposes. 
I  have  known  several  such  persons  in  my  life,  and  I  do  not 
hesitate  to  say,  that  any  person  who  so  manages  his  team 
will  get  more  labor  at  less  expense,  and  with  more  ease  to 
himself,  than  by  the  ordinary  bawling,  whipping  method  so 
much  practised  in  our  country.  All  the  difference  with  these 
people  is,  that  the  one  understands  and  studies  the  nature 


64  THE   COMTLETE  FARMER 

and  disposition  of  his  animals,  and  the  other  does  not.  'An 
even  temper  and  a  steady  hand,'  ought  to  be  the  teamster's 
motto,  the  world  over." 

The  following  valuable  observations  on  the  subject  of 
breaking  steers  and  colts,  are  extracted  from  a  communica- 
tion written  for  "The  Xew  England  Farmer,"  by  JNIr. 
James  Walker,  of  Fryeburgh,  Maine,  and  published  in  that 
paper.  Volume  XII.  p.  113. 

"I  call  my  young  cattle  calves  till  they  are  one  year  old. 
I  have  a  little  yoke  made  with  a  staple  and  ring  in  it.  I  tell 
my  little  boys  to  yoke  up  their  calves  :  a  small  boy  can  do 
it,  and  it  is  quite  a  pastime  to  them  ;  they  being  so  young, 
are  not  so  strong  but  that  he  can  manage  them  with  ease  ; 
any  small  stick  or  twig  answers  to  drive  them  with,  and  there 
is  no  danger  of  the  boy  or  steers  being  hurt.  When  he  can 
drive  them  where  he  wishes  them  to  go,  which  will  soon  be 
the  case,  he  will  hitch  them  to  a  small  piece  of  wood,  or  if 
in  winter  put  them  to  a  hand  sled,  and  drive  round  with  that; 
they  will  soon  become  docile.  There  is  no  trouble  with 
them  afterward,  especially  if  they  are  yoked  a  few  times  the 
second  winter  ;  it  makes  them  fond  of  their  mates.  Oxen 
that  are  trained  when  young  are  much  more  pliable  and  obe- 
dient, which  adds  much  to  their  value  :  steers  that  run  till 
they  are  three  or  four  years  old  are  dangerous  animals  to 
encounter  with  ;  they  are  always  running  away  with  the 
cart  or  sled  whenever  there  is  a  chance  for  them,  and  often 
serious  injury  is  the  result.  I  would  not  recommend  work- 
ing steers  hard  while  young,  as  it  would  prevent  their 
growth  ;  there  is  a  difference  between  working  them  and 
barely  training  them. 

"  Colts  I  begin  with  very  soon  after  they  are  foaled  ;  the 
mare  should  be  bridled  and  led  to  the  door,  and  given  a  lit- 
tle salt.  When  the  colt  is  one  or  two  days  old,  take  him  by 
the  neck,  handle  him  gently;  he  is  then  so  young  that  he  is 
not  afraid,  if  his  dam  is  near  by  him;  continue  this  practice, 
and  he  will  very  soon  become  fond  of  his  owner,  and  will 
come  on  purpose  to  be  handled,  after  two  or  three  weeks. 
It  does  not  hurt  the  mare  or  the  colt  to  use  her  moderately 
If  you  want  to  go  to  meeting  on  the  Sabbath,  harness  the 
mare  into  the  chaise  or  wagon,  and  tie  the  colt  to  the  arm  of 
the  carriage;  he  may  be  a  little  obstinate  at  first,  but  in  go- 
ing a  few  rods  will  be  peaceable  and  very  orderly;  if  there 
are  many  other  horses  about,  your  colt  is  always  with  you  : 
if  you  want  to  stop  at  a  place  any  time,  let  your  colt  loose; 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  65 

he  can  be  taken  again  without  difficulty,  and  before  you  start 
off  tie  your  colt  again;  in  this  way  there  is  no  trouble  of 
the  colt  following  other  horses  away.  When  they  become 
old  enough  for  service,  you  do  not  have  to  run  all  over  the 
pasture  for  the  horses;  they  can  always  be  taken  with  ease, 
Colts  trained  in  this  way  are  completely  halter  broken. 
When  you  begin  to  harness  them,  they  are  not  frightened  at 
the  noise  of  the  carriage  behind  them,  and  are  sooner  made 
quiet  in  the  harness.  It  has  been  a  common  saying,  that  if 
colts  are  handled  when  they  are  young,  it  depresses  their 
courage,  which  I  am  convinced  is  not  the  fact.  I  have 
raised  as  many  horses  as  most  farmers  of  my  age  in  this  vi- 
cinity, and  some  oC  them  the  most  spirited  I  ever  saw.  The 
above  rules  I  have  practised  for  quite  a  number  of  years,  and 
can  recommend  them  to  others  with  confidence." 

On  training  Oxen  to  back  a  Cart.  A  writer  for  "  The  Maine 
Farmer,"  with  the  signature  of  "A  Teamster,"  states  as 
follows  : 

"  I  have  observed  that  very  little  if  any  attention  is  paid 
by  our  farmers  to  learn  their  steers  to  back;  but  as  they  be- 
come able  to  draw  a  very  considerable  load  forward,  they 
are  often  unmercifully  beaten  on  the  head  and  face  because 
they  will  not  back  a  cart  or  sled  with  as  large  a  load  as  they 
can  draw  forwards,  forgetting  that  much  pains  have  been 
taken  to  learn  them  to  draw  well  forward,  but  none  to  learn 
them  to  push  backward.  To  remedy  the  occasion  of  this 
thumping,  and  the  delay,  which  is  always  disagreeable,  as 
soon  as  I  have  learned  my  steers  to  be  handy,  as  it  is  called, 
and  to  draw  forward,  I  place  them  on  a  cart  where  the 
land  is  descending  in  a  small  degree.  In  this  situation  they 
will  soon  learn  with  ease  to  back  it  ;  then  I  place  them  on 
level  land,  and  exercise  them  there;  then  I  learn  them  to 
back  a  cart  up  land  a  little  rising:  the  cart  having  no  load 
in  it  thus  far.  When  I  have  learned  them  to  stand  up  to  the 
tongue  as  they  ought  and  back  an  empty  cart,  I  ne.xt  either 
put  a  small  weight  in  the  cart,  or  take  them  where  the  land 
rises  faster,  which  answers  the  same  purpose.  Thus  in  a 
few  days  they  can  be  learned  to  back  well,  and  know  how  to 
do  it,  which  by  a  little  use  afterwards  they  will  never  forget. 
This  may  appear  of  little  consequence  to  some,  but  when  it 
is  remembered  how  frequently  we  want  to  back  a  load  when 
we  are  at  work  with  our  cattle,  and  how  commodious  it  often 
is  to  have  our  cattle  back  well,  why  should  we  not  learn 
them  for  the  time  when  we  want  them  thus  to  lay  out  their 
6* 


66  THE  COMPLETE  FARMER 

strength?  Besides,  it  saves  the  blows  and  vexation  often 
encountered,  which  is  considerable  when  one  is  in  haste. 
It  is  a  merciful  course  towards  our  brutes.  I  never  consider 
a  pair  of  oxen  well  broke  until  they  will  back  with  ease  any 
reasonable  load,  and  I  would  give  a  very  considerable  sum 
more  for  a  yoke  of  oxen  thus  tutored  than  for  a  yoke  not 
thus  trained." 

Oxen  sometimes  contract  a  bad  habit  of  pulling  or  hauling 
against  each  other;  and  sometimes  crowd  each  other,  so  as 
to  render  them  almost  entirely  useless  as  laborers.  It  is  said  - 
that  by  turning  them  out  to  feed  in  the  yoke  they  will  learn 
to  move  in  concert,  and  thus  be  broken  of  the  habits  of  pull- 
ing and  crowding. 

In  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Arts,"  the  follow- 
ing mode  of  training  oxen  to  the  draught  is  recommended: 
"  Put  a  broad  strap  round  their  necks,  fasten  one  end  to  a 
large  log  of  wood;  permit  the  ox  to  drag  it  about  as  he  feeds 
in  his  pasture,  before  he  is  put  in  harness,  by  which  his  do- 
cility is  much  forwarded."  If  a  yoke  of  oxen  were  fasten- 
ed to  a  heavy  loaded  sled  or  drag,  placed  in  a  pasture,  and 
the  oxen  secured  in  such  a  manner  that  they  could  not  cast 
or  injure  themselves,  and  the  load  were  so  heavy  that  they 
must  act  in  concert  to  move  it,  they  would  soon  learn  to  pull 
together,  and  be  true  to  the  yoke.  Having  eaten  the  grass 
within  reach  of  their  first  location,  they  would  of  necessity 
unite  their  efforts  to  remove  their  load  to  a  fresh  spot,  and 
would  adopt  for  their  motto,  united  we  feed,  divided  we 
starve. 

Diseases  of  Cattle.  Our  limits  v.ill  not  admit  of  our  being 
very  copious  under  this  head;  but  some  of  the  most  common 
ails  to  which  cattle  are  subject  shall  be  bri,efly  treated  of, 
and  the  remedies  prescribed. 

Cattle  are  apt  to  be  hoven  or  swollen,  in  consequence  of 
having  eaten  too  much  green  succulent  food.  The  common 
remedy  for  this  disorder  has  been,  to  stab  the  infected  animal 
with  a  penknife  or  other  sharp  instrument  under  the  short 
ribs,  and  put  into  the  orifice  a  tube  of  ivory,  elder,  a  quill, 
or  something  of  the  kind,  to  give  vent  to  the  confined  air 
The  wound  is  then  dressed  with  some  sort  of  adhesive  plas- 
ter, such  as  Burgundy  pitch,  and  thus  in  general  the  cure  is 
efl^ected.  This,  however,  according  to  "The  Grazier's 
Guide,"  is  a  bud  practice;  a  second  attack  becomes  more 
difticult  to  cure,  as  the  wound  adheres  to  the  side,  and  every 
repetition  increases  the  danger. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  67 

The  thirty-third  volume  of  Young's  "  Annals  of  Agricul- 
ture," prescribes  the  following  recipe  for  hoven  cattle,  which 
it  states  will  effect  a  cure  in  the  most  desperate  cases  in  half 
an  hour.  Take  three  quarters  of  a  pint  of  olive  oil,  one 
pint  of  melted  butter  or  hog's  lard  ;  give  this  mixture  by 
means  of  a  horn  or  bottle,  and  if  it  does  not  produce  a  fa- 
vorable change  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  repeat  the  same 
quantity,  and  walk  the  animal  gently  about.  For  sheep  at- 
tacked with  this  n)alady,  the  dose  is  from  a  wine-glass  and  a 
half  to  two  wine-glasses. 

The  following  remedy  for  this  complaint  has  also  been  re- 
commended. Make  about  a  pint  of  lye,  either  with  hot  em- 
bers thrown  into  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  or  by  dis- 
solving therein  about  an  ounce  of  pot  or  pearl-ash,  and  turn 
it  down  the  throat  of  the  ox  or  cow  affected.  A  propor- 
tionably  less  quantity  will  answer  for  a  sheep.  This  is  said 
to  give  immediate  relief,  by  neutralizing  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  in  the  stomach  of  the  animal,  which  causes  the  swelling 
and  other  symptoms  of  the  complaint  to  subside. 

Besides  these  remedies,  flexible  tubes  and  canes,  with 
knobs  on  their  ends,  tarred  rope,  whip  handles,  &c.,  have 
been  used  to  force  a  passage  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach, 
to  let  the  confined  air  escape  upwards  from  the  trunk  of  the 
animal  affected.  Descriptions  of  some  of  these  instruments 
may  be  seen  in  "The  Domestic  Encyclopedia,"  (Vol.  I. 
pp.  409,  410.)  Loudon  likewise  observes,  that  "the  flexi- 
ble tube  for  the  relief  of  cattle  that  are  hoven  or  choked, 
consists  of  a  strong  leathern  tube,  about  four  feet  long  and 
half  an  inch  diameter,  with  a  leaden  nozzle,  pierced  with 
holes  at  the  insertion  end.  It  should  be  kept  in  every  farm- 
ery. There  is  a  similar  one,  on  a  smaller  scale,  which  should 
be  kept  by  every  shepherd." 

In  turning  cattle  or  sheep  into  fresh  and  rank  clover  or 
lucerne,  care  should  be  taken  at  first  to  let  them  remain  but 
a  short  time  when  the  grass  is  dry,  and  then  turn  them  out 
again,  that  they  may  by  degrees  become  accustomed  to  the 
rich  herbage. 

Hoof-ail,  or  Hoof  Distemper.  A  writer  for  "The  Massa- 
chusetts Agricultural  Repository,"  (Vol.  IV.  p.  339,)  gives 
some  account  of  this  disorder,  from  which  we  extract  the 
following. 

"  Symptoms.  When  an  animal  is  at  all  lame,  its  foot 
should  be  carefully  felt.  The  first  indication  is,  usually,  an 
uncommon  degree  of  warmth,  and  a  soft  and  pufl^ed  feel  of 


68  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

the  parts  immediately  connected  with  the  sUt  between  the 
hoof,  either  before  or  behind  the  foot,  and  generally  just 
above  it.  If  in  the  hind  foot,  and  not  easily  handled,  a  ful- 
ness may  generally  be  perceived,  by  standing  behind  the 
animal,  and  carefully  comparing  the  appearance  of  the  two 
feet  between  the  dew-claws  and  the  hoots,  (for  it  very  rarely 
commences  its  attack  on  more  than  one  foot.)  In  the  fore 
foot  it  generally  swells  forward;  and  in  taking  up  the  foot  the 
slit  between  the  hoofs  will  generally  have  the  appearance  of 
dryness,  easily  distinguishable  to  a  person  used  to  cattle  ; 
and  the  animal  frequently  licks  the  front  part  of  the  foot. 
Instances  frequently  occur  of  sudden  and  extreme  lameness, 
without  any  appearance  of  heat  or  swelling  in  the  foot;  and 
these  are  often  the  worst  cases;  but  one  symptom  rarely 
fails  to  accompany  the  disease,  which  is  extreme  restlessness 
and  appearance  of  anguish,  attended  with  loss  of  appetite 
and  flesh,  but  without  in  the  least  affecting  the  brightness  ot 
the  eye,  and,  perhaps,  sometimes  unnaturally  increasing  it; 
but  the  eye  has  a  peculiar  cast.  As  a  general  rul«,  it  is 
safest  to  attribute  all  lameness  of  the  foot  which  cannot  be 
traced  to  a  sufficient  cause,  to  the  hoof-ail.  Lameness  of  the 
foot  can  generally  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  leg,  hip, 
or  shoulder,  by  making  the  animal  step  over  a  stick  or  rail, 
and  carefully  watching  its  motions. 

"Remedies.  The  foot  should  be  carefully  washed  and 
cleansed,  and  thoroughly  examined,  to  be  sure  that  the  lame- 
ness does  not  arise  from  a  nail  casually  run  into  the  foot,  or 
a  prick  in  shoeing,  from  a  wound  from  a  stump  or  other 
substance  between  the  hoofs,  (a  case  frequently  occurring.) 
If  no  appearance  occurs  of  any  break  in  the  skin,  while  the 
foot  is  still  wet,  apply  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  centre  of  the 
slit  between  the  hoofs,  from  one  to  three  grains  of  corrosive 
sublimate,  (reduced  to  a  fine  powder,)  the  dose  to  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  size  of  the  animal  and  the  violence  of  the  at- 
tack. Care  must  be  used  that  the  powder  is  put  completely 
in  this  slit,  for  it  is  a  very  strong  poison,  and  the  animal,  as 
soon  as  at  liberty,  will  begin  to  lick  the  foot  if  a  sore  one. 
The  moisture  left  by  the  washing  makes  the  powder  adhere, 
and  the  effect  is  produced  in  a  very  short  time.  Some  pre- 
fer mixing  the  powder  with  hog's  lard,  which  answers  ;  but 
is  thought  less  powerful :  it  has  one  advantage,  however,  as 
being  less  dangerous  to  keep  in  a  house,  (for  no  one  takes 
salve  inwardly.)  Where  corrosive  sublimate  cannot  be  ob- 
tained, any  other  violent  stimulant  may  be  applied.     Com- 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  69 

mon  salt  is  often  effectual  in  very  slight  attacks  ;  but  it  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  lose  no  time.  The  application 
is  to  be  repeated  every  twenty-four  hours  till  a  cure  is  effect- 
ed, or  till  the  foot  shows  unequivocal  signs  of  a  gathering 
which  will  break." 

Loss  of  the  Cud.  Rumination,  or  the  chewing  of  the  cud, 
i  that  motion  of  the  rumex  or  first  stomach  by  which  the 
food  is  forced  back  into  the  mouth  to  be  perfectly  masticated. 
This  motion  is  not  sudden  or  violent,  like  that  of  vomiting  ; 
but  gradual  and  gentle,  when  the  animal  is  healthy.  When, 
therefore,  an  animal  ceases  to  perform  this  essential  act  of 
digestion,  it  is  an  evident  proof  that  the  stomach  is  out  of 
order;  it  may  depend  on  the  state  of  the  first  stomach,  or 
it  may  proceed  from  the  third. 

Loudon  asserts,  that  although  "  loss  of  the  cud  enters  into 
the  list  of  most  of  cow  leeches'  diseases,  it  is  less  a  disease 
than  a  symptom  of  some  other  affection  ;  indeed  it  is  evident 
that  any  attack  sufficient  to  destroy  the  appetite  will,  gene- 
rally, occasion  the  loss  of  the  cud.  It  is  possible,  however, 
that  an  occasional  local  affection,  or  paralysis  of  the  paunch, 
may  occur,  particularly  when  it  is  distended  with  unhealthy 
substances,  as  acorns,  crab-apples,  the  tops  of  some  of  the 
woody  shrubs,  &c.  The  treahnent  in  such  cases,  consists  in 
stimulating  the  stomach  by  tonics,  aloes,  pepper,  and  gin, 
mixed.  Though  these  as  liquids  may  not  enter  the  stomach 
in  common  cases,  yet  in  this  disease  or  impaired  action  of 
the  rumex  they  will  enter  there." 

Mr.  Lawrence,  an  English  writer,  says,  in  loss  of  cud, 
"  Let  the  animal  fast  some  time,  then  give  a  warm  bran  or 
pollard  mash,  with  good  hay  and  warm  water  with  salt. 
Tliis  treatment  alone  may  succeed  with  patience,  even  should 
the  maw  be  obstructed  with  acorns  or  crab-apples.  An  aloes' 
tincture  made  with  brandy  and  ginger,  or  capsicum  [red 
pepper],  might  be  of  use  in  this  case.  After  conquering  the 
obstruction,  bitter  infusions  made  of  camomile,  hoarhound, 
oak  bark,  &c.  in  beer  may  be  required,  as  restoratives,  al- 
though, perhaps,  good  dry  nourishing  food  will  have  an 
equally  good  effect." 

Horn-ail,  or  Horn  Distemper.  In  the  spring,  cattle  which 
have  been  poorly  kept  through  the  winter,  are  subject  to  a 
wasting  of  the  pith  of  the  horn,  which  is  usually  called  the 
horn  distemper.  It  is  sometimes  in  one  horn  only  and  some- 
times in  both.  The  indications  of  the  disease  are,  coldness 
of  the   horn,   dulness   of  the  eyes,   sluggishness,   want   of 


70  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

appetite,  and  a  disposition  to  lie  down.  When  the  brain  is 
affected,  the  animal  will  toss  its  head,  groan,  and  exhibit 
indications  of  great  pain. 

To  cure  the  disease,  Dr.  Deane  directed  to  bore  a  hole 
with  a  nail  gimblet  into  the  lower  part  of  the  horn,  through 
which  the  foul  matter  may  be  discharged.  By  this  boring, 
which  should  be  nearly  horizontal,  or  in  the  depending  part 
of  the  horn,  and  two  or  three  inches  from  the  head  of  the 
animal,  the  cure  is  sometimes  completed.  When  it  proves 
otherwise,  a  mixture  of  rum  and  honey  with  myrrh  and  aloes 
should  be  thrown  into  the  horn,  with  a  syringe,  and  be  seve- 
ral times  repeated  if  the  disease  continue. 

Lovett  Peters,  Esq.  of  Westborough,  Massachusetts,  in  a 
communication  published  in  "The  New  England  Farmer," 
(Vol.  VII.  p.  194,)  gives  the  following  recipe  for  curing  this 
disease,  which  he  observes  was  furni.shed  him  by  an  aged 
friend,  and  successfully  applied  to  "  a  cow  taken  with  horn- 
ail  to  that  degree  that  she  had  nearly  stopped  eating,  and 
from  giving  a  large  quantity  of  milk  had  become  nearly 
dry." 

"  Take  of  salt  one  half-pint,  of  soot  one  half-pint,  of 
black  pepper  one  table-spoonful  ;  make  all  fine,  and  give 
one  or  two  spoonfuls  at  a  time,  night  and  morning.  It  is 
easily  done,  by  drawing  the  tongue  out  of  the  mouth  with  the 
hand,  and  putting  the  spoon  as  far.  down  as  it  will  reach; 
then  let  go  the  tongue,  and  keep  up  the  nose,  and  it  will  all 
go  down."  Mr.  Peters  says,  "  I  followed  the  directions,  and 
in  two  days  my  cow  was  better  ;  and  in  a  week  was  perfectly 
well.  The  same  may  not  cure  in  all  cases  of  horn-ail,  as 
my  informant  said  it  would,  but  it  is  worth  a  trial." 

It  should  seem,  however,  as  Mr.  Peters  suggested,  that 
the  above-mentioned  remedy  is  not  infallible.  Mr.  Thomas 
Hazen,  in  a  communication  published  in  "The  New  Eng- 
land Farmer,"  (Vol.  VII.  p.  234,)  states,  that  he  tried  it 
without  success  ;  but  by  the  advice  of  a  large  owner  of 
cattle,  he  freely  applied  spirits  of  turpentine  to  an  ox  in  high 
flesh,  but  afflicted  with  the  horn-ail,  on  the  top  of  the  head 
along  the  roots  of  the  horns,  for  a  number  of  days.  The  ox 
soon  began  to  feed  well,  and  in  a  few  w-eeks  was  sold  for 
market.  It  is  a  severe  remedy,  throwing  the  animal  into 
extreme  agony." 

Dr.  Cooper,  in  the  last  Philadelphia  edition  of  AVillich's 
"Domestic  Encyclopedia,"  directs,  For  the  hollow  horn, 
saw  off  the  diseased  part  ;  dress  with  turpentine  ;  keep  the 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  71 

animal  warm,  and  do  not  starve  him.     It  is  a  disease  owing 
to  want  of  food  and  exposure  to  cold. 

Remedy  for  Cuttle  when  choked  by  Roots  or  other  substances. 
Mr.  Joseph  VVingate,  of  Maine,  in  a  communication  for 
"The  New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  III.  page  57,)  says, 
that  every  farmer  should  have  a  rope,  which  is  to  be  put 
down  into  any  animal's  throat  when  choked  with  any  hard 
substance,  such  as  a  turnip,  potato,  or  an  ear  of  corn.  "  I 
have  used  this  rope,  and  never  found  the  least  difficulty  in  giv- 
ing immediate  relief  Many  cattle  have  died  for  the  want  of 
it,  and  many  have  been  killed  outright  by  using  other  means. 
Take  an  old  tarred  rope,  six  feet  long.  Let  it  be  served 
[strongly  wound  round  with  twine],  and,  when  finished,  be 
one  inch  in  diameter.  When  put  down  the  throat  it  should 
be  pushed  gently  down  four  feet  and  a  half  into  a  cow  or  an 
ox.  In  cold  weather  it  is  stiff  enough,  but  in  warm  weather 
it  should  be  wet  with  cold  water  before  it  is  used." 

Mr.  E.  Williams,  of  Westford,  New  York,  in  "  The  New 
England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  III.  p.  81,)  directs  to  an  easier 
method  to  relieve  this  complaint  :  "It  is  merely  to  pour 
down  the  throat  one  quart  of  very  strong  soap  suds.  I  have 
seen  it  tried  in  numerous  instances,  and  invariably  with  the 
best  efTect.      It  affords  instantaneous  relief" 


BARNS.  It  is  a  common  practice,  and  with  many  a 
general  rule,  to  build  a  farm-house  adjoining,  and  perhaps 
in  contact  with  the  sheds,  barns,  and  other  outhouses. 
When  the  buildings  are  thus  all  situated  in  one  clump,  if 
one  takes  fire,  the  whole  will,  probably,  be  consumed.  Be- 
sides, it  is  disagreeable  and  unwholesome  to  live  too  near 
manure  heaps,  and  as  it  were  in  the  midst  of  your  herds  of 
cattle  and  swine.  The  barn  should,  therefore,  be  placed  at 
a  convenient  distance  from  the  dwellinghouse  and  other 
buildings,  but  as  near  as  may  be  without  danger  of  fire,  or 
annoyance  from  the  effluvia  of  manure  heaps.  Too  low  a 
spot  will  be  miry  in  spring  and  fall.  Too  high  an  eminence 
will  be  inconvenient  for  drawing  in  loads,  and  on  account  of 
saving  and  making  manui'e.  If  other  circumstances  permit, 
it  may  be  best  to  place  a  barn  in  such  a  manner  as  to  de- 
fend the  dwellinghouse  from  the  force  of  the  coldest  winds. 

The  size  of  the  barn  should  be  proportionate  to  the  pro- 
duce of  the  farm  ;  for  in  this  country,  where  building  is  not 


72  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

expensive,  all  the  hay  and  grain  should  be  placed  under 
cover.  It  is  a  bad  practice  to  leave  hay  in  stacks,  in  the 
meadows  where  it  is  cut,  to  be  there  foddered  out  to  the  cat- 
tle in  the  course  of  the  winter.  By  this  mode  of  manage- 
ment the  manure  is  almost  lost.  The  ground  under  and 
near  the  stack  receives  some  benefit  from  the  droppings  of 
the  cattle,  the  litter,  hay-seeds,  &c.  of  the  stack.  But  this 
benefit  is  trifling,  as  the  sun,  air,  and  rains,  soon  exhale  and 
wash  away  the  manure,  which,  being  left  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  is  soon  given  to  the  winds  and  the  waters. 

The  farmers  of  the  older  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  generally, 
build  very  large  barns,  and  to  prevent  the  hay  or  grain  from 
heating  in  a  large  mow,  four  poles  or  pieces  of  timber  are 
set  up  in  the  middle,  so  as  to  form  within  them  a  square 
space  of  about  two  feet.  The  poles  are  braced  by  cross- 
pieces  at  certain  distances.  Through  the  aperture  thus 
made,  the  extra  moisture  in  the  hay  or  grain  has  a  chance  to 
escape,  so  as  to  prevent  its  being  mow-burnt.  Their  barns 
are  usually  built  of  stone,  and  in  the  walls  a  large  number 
of  small  holes  are  made  for  the  admission  of  air.  Their  cat- 
tle are  chiefly  all  housed,  and  their  dung  is  under  cover, 
when  thrown  out  of  the  stables  to  prevent  its  being  injured 
by  the  rains.  The  roofs  of  the  barns  are  usually  painted, 
to  preserve  them  against  the  weather. 

"  The  floor  of  the  barn  should  be  kept  tight,  so  that  the 
grain  cannot  fall  through  in  threshing  ;  and  for  this  purpose 
it  should  have  a  layer  of  thin  boards  under  it.  It  is  most 
advisable  also  to  have  a  place  set  apart  in  the  barn  for  the 
purpose  of  storing  away  the  grain  after  it  is  threshed.  The 
bins  for  the  grain  should  be  made  of  hard  plank,  to  prevent 
the  rats  and  mice  from  eating  through  them,  and  should  have 
lids,  which  can  be  fastened  down  with  padlocks."  —  Farm- 
er's Assistant. 

The  following  description  of  a  large  barn  built  in  the 
town  of  Hancock,  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  by  the 
family  of  Shakers  located  in  that  place,  was  originally 
published  in  the  INIiddletown  (Conn.)  "  Sentinel." 

"The  barn  is  built  on  ground  inclining  southwardly,  in  a 
perfect  circle,  and  is  ninety  feet  in  diameter  across  it  from 
side  to  side.  The  walls  are  of  stone,  twenty-two  feet  in 
height,  of  a  suitable  thickness,  and  laid  in  lime,  and  well 
pointed  on  each  side.  Round  the  barn,  on  the  inner  side, 
are  stables,  forming  a  circle,  the  manger  within,  and  suit- 
able places  over  it  to  throw  or  feed  down  the  hay;  the  stable 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  73 

and  rnanger  occupy  about  twelve  feet,  and  are  eight  feet 
high ;  the  stables  open  to  and  from  several  different  barn- 
yards, in  order  to  make  as  many  and  such  divisions  of  stock 
as  they  have  thought  proper.  The  covering  of  the  stables 
forms  the  barn  floor,  which  also  extends  round  the  barn. 
There  is  but  one  large  door-way  for  entrance  with  teams  and 
loads;  this  is  from  the  northern  side,  from  an  offset  or  cause- 
way, eight  feet  above  the  base,  and  of  course  fourteen  feet 
below  the  eaves.  The  cart  or  wagon  that  enters  with  a  load 
makes  the  whole  circuit  of  the  floor,  and  after  unloading 
comes  out  at  the  same  door;  thus  eight  or  ten  teams  with 
their  loads  can  occupy  the  floor  at  one  time  in  unloading, 
and  not  hinder  each  other.  Within  this  circle  of  the  stables 
and  barn  floor  is  an  area  or  bay,  as  it  is  usually  called, 
which  is  filled  with  hay,  &c.,  which  must  be  over  sixty  feet 
in  diameter.  This  is  pitched  in  and  on  from  any  side  or 
place  most  convenient,  or  where  wanted.  The  roof  comes 
to  a  point  at  the  centre,  and  sheds  off  the  rain  all  round, 
something  similar  to  an  umbrella.  It  is  supported  from  the 
inner  circle  of  the  barn  floor.  The  roof  boards  are  laid  up 
and  down,  which,  by  a  transverse  sawing  of  the  log,  were 
all  brought  to  a  point,  and  then  shingled  round  in  the  usual 
mode." 

A  writer  for  "  The  New  England  Farmer,"  whose  com- 
munication was  published,  (Vol.  III.  p.  81,)  describes  "a 
barn  of  ordinary  size,  and  the  main  part  of  it  built  in  the 
usual  shape,  but  a  good  deal  neater  and  tighter.  The  bays 
were  upon  each  side  of  the  floor,  and  the  bottoms  of  them 
were  sunk  eight  feet  below  it.  This  gave  room  for  a  large 
quantity  of  hay  below  the  floor.  The  large  doors  were  to- 
wards the  south,  to  admit  the  sun,  when  necessary,  with  a 
small  door  in  one  of  the  large  ones  to  enter  at,  when  the 
w-eather  was  windy  and  made  it  dangerous  to  open  the 
large  doors.  Barns  ought  always  to  have  a  small  door  to 
use  in  the  winter,  when  you  must  often  be  in  and  out. 
There  were  twelve  squares  of  glass  arranged  over  the  door, 
to  admit  the  light  when  the  large  doors  were  shut;  besides  a 
small  window  in  each  of  the  gable  ends,  very  near  the 
ridge,  for  the  same  purpose.  Under  the  floor  was  a  con- 
venient cellar,  in  which  were  kept  potatoes,  and  all  kinds  of 
vegetables  for  green  fodder  in  the  winter.  The  cellar  was  a 
very  warm  one,  and  well  lighted  with  two  windows.  This 
cellar  struck  me  as  being  the  most  useful  apartment  in  the 
whole  establishment.  There  you  may  keep  as  many  turnips, 
7 


74  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

cabbages,  potatoes,  Sec,  as  you  please,  and  they  are  always 
handy  to  fodder  out  in  the  stable  to  your  cattle;  and  the 
cattle  need  scarcely  go  out  of  the  stable  in  a  month. 

"  The  yard  was  well  watered  by  an  aqueduct,  and  a  trough 
on  the  south  side  of  the  barn  was  kept  always  full.  Upon 
the  north  or  back  side  of  the  barn  were  the  stables  :  they 
were  built  in  one  building,  and  joined  to  the  main  part,  about 
twenty-five  feet  in  width,  thirty  feet  long,  and  twelve  or  four- 
teen feet  high.  A  door  led  from  the  barn  into  it,  besides 
another  from  without  upon  the  east  side,  where  the  cattle 
were  admitted  from  the  yard.  A  floor  was  laid  overhead, 
at  the  distance  of  seven  feet  from  the  lower  one.  The  stalls 
were  arranged  on  each  side  of  the  building,  so  that  the  cat- 
tle stood  with  their  heads  towards  the  outside  of  the  building, 
leaving  a  space  in  the  middle  to  pass. 

"  In  foddering,  the  hay  was  pitched  from  the  bay  in  the 
barn  through  a  window,  over  the  stables,  and  then  put  down 
into  racks;  very  little  hay  could  be  wasted  in  this  way,  and 
the  boys  could  be  trusted  with  the  foddering.  The  manure 
made  in  the  stable  was  put  down  through  the  floor  into 
another  cellar,  large  enough  to  admit  of  a  cart  and  team  to 
take  it  away." 

A  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Farms,  in  the  county  of 
Essex,  for  the  year  1824,  states,  that  Colonel  Moses  New- 
hall,  in  West  Newbury,  "  has  lately  built  a  barn,  which,  for 
convenience  and  durability  of  construction,  is  worthy  of 
much  praise.  It  is  calculated  better  for  the  farmer's  use 
than  any  one  we  have  seen.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that 
during  the  haying  season,  the  most  busy  season  with  the 
farmer,  its  superior  conveniences  will  save  at  least  the  labor 
of  one  man  on  the  farm.  It  is  about  eighty  feet  in  length, 
thirty-four  feet  in  width,  and  twenty  feet  post.  It  has  two 
floors,  one  eight  feet  above  the  other;  on  the  upper  of  which 
the  hay  is  carried  in." 

The  Shakers  of  Harvard,  Massachusetts,  have  built  a 
barn,  which  is  probably  larger  than  any  other  structure  of 
the  kind  in  the  United  States.  The  dimensions  are  one  hun- 
dred and  Jifly  feet  in  length,  and  forty-Jive  in  width.  It  is  four 
stories  in  height,  and  the  calculation  is,  to  drive  in  on  the 
upper  floors,  from  the  hill  side,  and  pitch  the  hay  down, 
thus  rendering  much  hard  labor  easy. 

Barn-Yards.  The  following  "  Remarks  on  the  Construc- 
tion and  Management  of  Cattle  Yards,"  are  from  the  pen  of 
Judge  Buel,  of  Albanv: 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  75 

"Vegetables,  like  animals,  cannot  thrive  or  subsist  with- 
out food;  and  upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  this  depends 
the  health  and  vigor  of  the  vegetable,  as  vv'ell  as  of  the  an- 
imal. Both  subsist  upon  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  both 
may  be  surfeited  with  excess,  both  may^be  injured  by  food 
not  adapted  to  their  habits,  their  appetites,  or  their  digestive 
powers.  A  hog  will  receive  no  injury,  but  great  benefit, 
from  free  access  to  a  heap  of  corn  or  wheat,  where  a  horse 
or  cow  will  be  apt  to  destroy  themselves  by  excess.  The 
goat  will  thrive  upon  the  boughs  and  bark  of  trees,  where 
the  hog  would  starve.  The  powerful,  robust  maize  will 
repay,  in  the  increase  of  its  grain,  for  a  heavy  dressing  of 
strong  dung;  for  which  the  more  delicate  wheat  will  requite 
you  whh  very  little  but  straw.  The  potato  feeds  ravenous- 
ly, and  grows  luxuriantly,  upon  the  coarsest  litter;  while 
many  of  the  more  tender  exotics  will  thrive  only  on  food 
upon  which  fermentation  has  exhausted  its  powers.  But 
here  the  analogy  stops  :  for  while  the  food  of  the  one  is 
consumed  in  a  sound,  healthy,  and  generally  solid  state,  the 
food  of  the  other,  before  it  becomes  aliment,  must  undergo 
the  process  of  putrefaction  or  decomposition,  and  be  reduced 
to  a  liquid  or  ssriform  state. 

"  I  have  gone  into  the  analogy  between  animals  and  vege- 
tables thus  far,  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  our  farmers  the 
importance  of  saving,  and  of  applying  the  food  of  their  vege- 
tables with  the  same  care  and  economy  that  they  do  the 
food  of  their  animals.  How  scrupulously  careful  is  the  good 
husbandman  of  the  produce  of  his  farm,  destined  to  nourish 
and  fatten  his  animals  ;  and  yet  how  often  careless  of  the 
food  which  can  alone  nourish  and  mature  his  plants:  while 
his  fields  are  gleaned,  and  his  grain,  hay,  and  roots  carefully 
housed,  and  economically  dispensed  to  his  animals,  the  food 
of  his  vegetables  is  suffered  to  waste  on  every  part  of  his 
farm.  Stercoraries  we  have  none.  The  urine  of  the  stock, 
which  constitutes  a  moiety  of  the  manure  of  animals,  is  all 
lost.  The  slovenly  and  wasteful  practice  of  feeding  at  stacks 
in  the  fields,  where  the  sole  of  the  grass  is  broken,  the  fodder 
wasted,  and  the  dung  of  little  effect,  is  still  pursued.  And, 
finally,  the  little  manure  which  does  accumulate  in  the 
yards,  is  suffered  to  lie  till  it  has  lost  full  half  of  its  fertiliz- 
ing properties,  or  rotted  the  sills  of  the  barn;  when  it  is 
injudiciously  applied,  or  the  barn  removed  to  get  clear  of  the 
nuisance.  Again:  none  but  a  slothful  farmer  will  permit  the 
flocks  of  his  neighbours  to  rob  his  own  of  their  food;  yet 


76  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

he  often  sees,  but  with  feeble  efforts  to  prevent  it,  his  plants 
smothered  by  pestiferous  weeds,  and  plundered  of  the  food 
which  is  essential  to  their  health  and  vigor.  A  weed  con- 
sumes as  much  food  as  a  useful  plant.  This,  to  be  sure,  is 
the  dark  side  of  the  picture;  yet  the  original  may  be  found 
in  every  town,  and  in  almost  every  neighbourhood. 

"  Is  it  surprising,  that  under  such  management,  our  arable 
grounds  should  grow  poor,  and  refuse  to  labor  its  accustom- 
ed reward  ?  Can  it  be  considered  strange,  that  those  who 
thus  neglect  to  feed  their  plants  should  feel  the  evil  of  light 
purses,  as  well  as  of  light  crops  ?  Constant  draining  or 
evaporation,  without  returning  any  thing,  would  in  time 
exhaust  the  ocean  of  its  waters.  A  constant  cropping  of  the 
soil,  without  returning  any  thing  to  it,  will  in  like  manner 
exhaust  it  of  its  vegetable  food,  and  gradually  induce  steril- 
ity. Neither  sand,  clay,  lime,  or  magnesia,  which  are  the 
elements  of  all  soils,  nor  any  combination  of  part  or  all  of 
them,  is  alone  capable  of  producing  healthy  plants.  It  is 
the  animal  and  vegetable  matter  accumulated  upon  its 
bosom,  or  which  art  deposits  there  with  the  auxiliary  aid  of 
these  materials  diffused  in  the  atmosphere,  that  enables  the 
earth  to  teem  with  vegetable  life,  and  yield  its  tribute  to 
man  and  beast." 

Judge  Buel  suggests  the  following  cheap  and  practicable 
mode  of  providing  food  for  vegetables ; 

"  The  cattle  yard  should  be  located  on  the  south  side  of 
and  adjoining  the  barn.  Sheds,  substantial  stone  walls,  or 
close  board  fences,  should  be  erected  at  least  on  the  east  and 
west  sides,  to  shelter  the  cattle  from  cold  winds  and  storms; 
the  size  proportioned  to  the  stock  to  be  kept  in  it.  Exca- 
vate the  centre  in  a  concave  form,  placing  the  earth  removed 
upon  the  edges  or  lowest  sides,  leaving  the  borders  ten  or 
twelve  feet  broad,  of  a  horizontal  level,  to  feed  the  stock  up- 
on, and  from  two  to  five  feet  higher  than  the  centre.  This 
may  be  done  with  a  plough  and  scraper,  or  shovel  and  hand- 
barrow,  after  the  ground  is  broken  up  with  the  plough. 
When  the  soil  is  not  sufficiently  compact  to  hold  water,  the 
bottom  should  be  bedded  with  six  or  eight  inches  of  clay, 
well  beat  down,  and  covered  with  gravel  or  sand.  This  last 
labor  is  seldom  required,  except  where  the  ground  is  very 
porous.  Here  should  be  annually  deposited,  as  they  can  be 
conveniently  collected,  the  weeds,  coarse  grass,  and  brakes 
of  the  farm;  and  also  the  pumpkin  vines  and  potato  tops. 
And  here  also  should  be  fed  out,  or  strewed  as  litter,  the 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  77 

hay,  stalks,  and  husks  of  Indian  corn,  pea  and  bean  haulm, 
and  the  straw  of  grain  not  wanted  in  the  stables.  To  still 
further  augment  the  mass,  leached  ashes  and  swamp  earth 
may  be  added  to  advantage.  These  materials  will  absorb 
the  liquid  of  the  yard,  and,  becoming  incorporated  with  the 
excrementitious  matter,  double  or  treble  the  ordinary  quantity 
of  manure.  During  the  continuance  of  frost  the  excavation 
gives  no  inconvenience;  and  when  the  weather  is  soft,  the 
borders  afford  ample  room  for  the  cattle.  In  this  way,  the 
urine  is  saved,  and  the  waste  incident  to  rains,  &c.  prevent- 
ed. The  cattle  should  be  kept  constantly  yarded  in  winter, 
except  when  let  out  to  water,  and  the  yard  frequently  re- 
plenished with  dry  litter.  Upon  this  plan,  from  ten  to  twelve 
loads  of  unfermented  manure  may  be  obtained  every  spring 
for  each  animal;  and  if  the  stable  manure  is  spread  over  the 
yard,  the  quality  of  the  dung  will  be  improved,  and  the 
quantity  proportionably  increased.  Any  excess  of  liquid 
that  may  remain  after  the  dung  is  removed  in  the  spring, 
can  be  profitably  applied  to  grass,  grain,  or  garden  crops. 
It  is  used  extensively  in  Flanders,  and  in  other  parts  of 
Europe. 

"  Having  explained  my  method  of  procuring  and  preserv- 
ing the  food  of  vegetables,  I  will  proceed  to  state  my  prac- 
tice in  feeding  or  applying  it.  It  is  given,  every  spring, 
to  such  hoed  crops  as  will  do  well  upon  coarse  food,  (my 
vegetable  hogs  and  goats.)  These  are  corn,  potatoes,  ruta 
baga,  beans,  and  cabbages.  These  consume  the  coarser 
particles  of  the  manure,  which  would  have  been  lost  during 
the  summer  in  the  yard;  while  the  plough,  harrow,  and  hoe 
eradicate  the  weeds  which  spring  from  the  seeds  it  scatters. 
The  finer  parts  of  the  food  are  preserved  in  the  soil,  to 
nourish  the  small  grains  which  follow.  The  dung  is  spread 
upon  the  land  as  evenly  as  possible,  and  immediately  turned 
under  with  the  plough.  It  is  thereby  better  distributed  for 
the  next  crop,  and  becomes  intimately  mixed  and  incorpora- 
ted with  the  soil  by  subsequent  tillage.  Thus,  upon  the  data 
which  I  feel  warranted  in  assuming,  a  farmer  who  keeps 
twenty  horses  and  neat  cattle,  will  obtain  from  his  yards  and 
stables,  every  spring,  two  hundred  loads  of  manure,  besides 
■what  is  made  in  summer,  and  the  product  of  his  hogsty. 
With  this  he  may  manure  annually  ten  or  twelve  acres  of 
corn,  potatoes,  Stc,  and  manure  it  well.  And  if  a  proper 
rotation  of  crops  is  adopted,  he  will  be  able  to  keep  in  good 

heart,  and   progressively  to  improve,  sixty  acres  of  tillage 

7# 


78  TUE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

land,  so  that  each  field  shall  be  manured  once  every  four  or 
five  years,  on  the  return  of  the  corn  and  potato  crop." 


DAIRY.  The  celebrated  Arthur  Young  has  the  follow- 
ing remarks  on  this  subject : 

"Unless  the  farmer  has  a  very  diligent  and  industrious 
wife,  who  sees  minutely  to  her  dairy,  or  a  most  honest,  dili- 
gent, and  careful  housekeeper  to  do  it  for  him,  he  will  assur- 
edly lose  money  by  his  dairy;  trusted  to  common  servants, 
it  will  not  pay  charges.  The  dairymaid  must  be  up  every 
morning  at  four  o'clock,  or  she  will  be  backward  in  her 
business.  At  five  the  cows  must  be  milked,  and  there  must 
be  milkers  enough  to  finish  by  six.  The  same  rule  must  be 
observed  in  the  evening. 

"  In  making  butter,  the  dairymaids  are  particularly  atten- 
tive to  one  circumstance,  that  there  must  be  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  sour  in  the  cream,  either  natural  or  artificial,  or 
they  cannot  insure  a  good  churning  of  butter;  some  keep  a 
little  of  the  old  cream  for  that  purpose;  others  use  a  little 
runnet;   and  some  a  little  lemon  juice." 

In  order  to  determine  which  cow's  milk  is  best  for  cream, 
it  has  been  recommended  to  let  the  milk  of  each  be  put  by 
itself,  and  churn  each  separately. 

The  properties  requisite  in  a  dairy-house  are,  that  it  be 
cool  in  summer  and  moderately  warm  in  winter,  so  as  to 
preserve  nearly  the  same  temperature  throughout  the  year, 
which,  according  to  Loudon,  should  be  about  forty-five  de- 
grees. A  northern  exposure,  as  much  under  the  shade  of 
trees  as  possible,  is  to  be  preferred.  A  well-constructed  but- 
ter dairy,  says  Loudon,  should  consist  of  three  apartments; 
a  milk  house,  a  churning  house,  with  proper  boiler,  as  well 
as  other  conveniences  for  scalding  and  washing  the  imple- 
ments, and  a  room  to  keep  them  in,  and  for  drying  and  air- 
ing them,  when  the  weather  will  not  permit  of  its  being  done 
without  doors.  The  cheese  dairy  should  likewise  consist  of 
three  apartments  :  a  milk  house,  a  scalding  and  pressing 
house,  and  a  salting  house.  To  these  should  be  added  a 
cheese  room,  or  loft,  which  may  with  great  propriety  be 
made  above  the  dairy.  This  is,  however,  generally  separate 
from  the  dairy.  But  a  milk  dairy  requires  only  a  good 
milk  house,  and  a  room  for  scalding,  cleaning,  and  airing 
the  utensils. 

A  dairy  for  the  private  use  of  any  farmer  or  family  need 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  79 

not  be  large,  and  may  very  economically  be  formed  in  a 
thick-walled  dry  cellar,  so  situated  as  to  have  windows  on 
two  sides  ;  the  north  and  east  in  preference  for  ventilation  ; 
and  in  order  that  these  windows  may  the  better  exclude  cold 
in  winter  and  heat  in  summer,  they  should  be  fitted  with 
double  sashes;  and  on  the  outside  of  the  outer  sash  should 
be  a  fixed  frame  of  close  wire  netting  or  haircloth,  to 
exclude  flies  and  other  insects.* 

On  Making  and  Preserving  Butter.  The  dairy-house 
should  be  kept  neat,  should  not  front  the  south,  southeast, 
or  southwest.  An  apartment  in  a  sweet  and  well-ventilated 
cellar  will  answer  a  good  purpose  to  keep  milk  and  cream 
in.  Cheeses  should  not  be  set  to  dry  in  the  same  room 
where  your  milk  is  set,  for  they  communicate  an  acid  matter 
to  the  surrounding  air,  which  will  have  a  tendency  to  make 
the  milk  sour.  The  milk  room  and  cheese  room  should 
therefore  be  separate  apartments.  It  will  be  well  to  place 
your  milk  room,  if  possible,  over  a  spring  or  brook,  near  the 
dwellinghouse;  and  you  may  have  a  stone  floor,  and  chan- 
nels in  the  floor  to  pass  the  water  round  near  the  inside  of 
the  walls.  Into  these  channels  the  pans  may  be  set,  filled 
with  milk,  and  surrounded  by  water.  If  water  could  be  in- 
troduced into  the  milk  room  so  as  to  fall  from  some  height 
on  the  pavement,  it  would  likewise  prove  advantageous,  as 
the  waterfall  and  the  evaporation  it  causes  will  contribute  to 
preserve  the  air  continually  pure,  fresh,  and  cool.  As  the 
milk  itself  when  brought  in  warm  will  naturally  tend  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  milk  room  too  high,  it  is  recommend- 
ed to  have  an  ice-house  attached  to  the  dairy,  especially 
where  the  advantage  of  a  current  of  water  cannot  be  obtain- 
ed. An  ice-house  would  prove  still  more  profitable  if  the 
dairy  be  situated  near  large  towns,  where  the  ice  could  be 
sold  in  summer.  According  to  Dr.  Deane,  the  temperature 
of  the  milk  room  should  be  from  fifty  to  fifty-five  degrees  of 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer;  and  "The  Complete  Grazier" 
says,  "  Where  the  temperature  of  the  milk  room  has  be- 
come affected  by  the  carrying  of  newly  drawn  milk  into  it, 
it  may  be  easily  reduced  to  the  proper  temperature  by  sus- 
pending a  small  quantity  of  ice  at  a  considerable  height  from 
the  floor;  and  if,  during  winter,  the  cold  should  become  too 
great,  a  barrel  of  hot  water  closely  stopped,  or  a  few  hot 

*  For  several  different  plans  of  dairy-houses,  see  Loudon's  "  EncyclopiBdia 
of  Agriculture,"   Par.  6300,  &c. 


80  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

bricks  placed  on  the  floor  or  table  of  the  milk  room,  will 
readily  counteract  its  effects.  But  on  no  account  whatever 
should  a  chafing-dish  with  burning  coals  be  used,  as  it  will 
certainly  impart  a  bad  taste  to  the  milk." 

The  proper  receptacles  for  milk  are  tin  or  earthen  pans, 
not  glazed  nor  lined  with  lead,  or  wooden  trays.  Lead, 
copper,  or  brass  utensils,  as  well  as  earthenware  vessels 
glazed  with  lead,  ought  on  no  pretext  whatever  to  be  used; 
for  the  acid  which  is  contained  in  milk  combines  with  these 
metals,  and  forms  a  poisonous  compound  with  them.  Sir 
John  Sinclair  recommends  vessels  made  of  cast  iron,  soften- 
ed by  annealing  them  in  charcoal,  so  that  they  will  not  break 
by  an  ordinary  fall,  turned  smooth  in  the  inside,  and  laid 
over  with  a  coat  of  tin,  to  prevent  the  iron  from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  milk.  These  milk  dishes  are  stated  to  be 
kept  more  easily  clean  than  wooden  vessels;  and  their  su- 
perior power  of  conducting  heat  cools  the  milk  so  rapidly, 
that  the  Scottish  farmers'  wives,  who  have  given  them  a  fair 
trial,  affirm  that  they  throw  up  one  third  more  cream  from  an 
equal  quantity  of  milk.*  Cast-iron  vessels,  without  being 
tinned,  would  give  no  poisonous  quality  to  the  milk,  but  they 
might  render  the  produce  of  the  dairy  unpalatable. 

"All  dairy  utensils  ought  to  be  most  carefully  scoured, 
first  with  hot  water,  and  afterwards  rinsed  with  cold,  and 
kept  in  an  air)'  place,  in  order  that  every  possible  degree  of 
acidity  may  be  removed.  Should  one  or  two  scourings  be 
insufficient,  they  must  be  repeatedly  cleansed  until  they  be- 
come entirely  sweet,  as  the  slightest  taint  or  acidity  may 
cause  material  loss."t  Slate,  according  to  some  accounts, 
makes  very  good  milk  coolers,  and  perhaps  freestone  might 
answer  as  well. 

The  quality  and  quantity  of  cows'  milk  greatly  depends 
on  the  nature  of  their  food.  Potatoes,  carrots,  and  parsnips 
are  recommended  as  causing  cows  to  give  excellent  milk; 
and  mangel-wurtzel  is  highly  spoken  of  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. Cabbages,  if  sound,  answer  an  excellent  purpose,  but 
the  decayed  leaves  give  a  bad  taste  to  the  milk.  It  is 
thought  best  to  milk  cows  three  times  a  day  if  fully  fed,  and 
great  caution  should  be  exercised  by  the  persons  employed 
to  draw  the  milk  from  them  completely,  not  only  to  increase 
the  quantity  of  produce,  but  to  preserve  its  quality.  Any 
portion  which  may  be  left  in  the  udder  seems  gradually  to  be 

*  Agiicultural  Report  of  Scotland.  t  The  Complete  Grazier. 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  81 

absorbed  into  the  system,  and  no  more  is  formed  than 
enough  to  supply  the  loss  of  what  is  taken  away;  and  by  the 
continuance  of  the  same  mode  a  yet  further  diminution  takes 
place,  until  at  length  scarcely  any  is  produced.  This  last 
mode  of  milking  is  practised  when  it  is  intended  to  render  a 
cow  dry. 

"  After  the  milk  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  it  should  be  care- 
fully strained  through  a  Unen  cloth  or  a  hair  sieve,  (Dr.  An- 
derson prefers  a  sieve  made  of  silver  wires,  on  account  of  its 
superior  wholesomeness,)  into  the  cream  dishes,  which 
should  never  exceed  three  inches  in  depth,  though  they  may 
be  made  so  wide  as  to  contain  any  quantity  required,  and 
which  ought  to  be  perfectly  clean,  sweet,  and  cool.  If  any 
ill  flavor  is  apprehended  from  the  cows  having  eaten  turnips, 
&c.,  the  addition  of  one  eighth  part  of  boiling  water  to  the 
milk  before  it  is  poured  into  the  dishes  will  effectually 
remove  it.*  When  filled,  the  dishes  ought  to  be  set  upon 
shelves  or  dressers,  there  to  continue  till  the  cream  is  re- 
moved. This  should  be  steadily  done  by  means  of  a  skim- 
ming dish,  if  possible,  without  spilling  any  upon  the  floor, 
because  it  will  speedily  taint  the  air  of  the  room;  and  the 
cream  poured  into  a  vessel,  till  enough  be  obtained  for 
churning." 

The  "  Farmer's  Assistant  "  judiciously  observes,  "  If  new 
milk  be  kept  as  warm  as  when  it  comes  from  the  cow,  no 
cream  will  rise  on  it  ;  but  when  sufficiently  cooled,  the 
cream  separates  from  the  rest  and  rises  to  the  top.  In  order 
then  to  effect  this  to  the  best  advantage,  the  new  milk  should 
be  made  as  cool  as  possible,  and  the  cooler  it  is  thus  made 
the  more  suddenly  and  effectually  the  cream  will  rise.  To 
set  milkpans  made  of  tin  in  beds  of  salt  would  no  doubt  be 
useful,  where  the  cellar  is  too  warm;  and  to  set  all  milk  ves- 
sels on  a  floor  which  is  constantly  covered  with  cold  spring 
water  is  also  an  excellent  plan." 

The  following  remarks  relative  to  the  best  mode  of  mak- 

*  Mr.  Young  has  recommended  the  dairyman  to  boil  two  ounces  of  nitre 
in  one  quart  of  water,  and  to  l)Ottle  the  mixture;  of  which,  when  cold,  a 
large  tea-cupful  is  to  be  added  to  ten  or  twelve  quarts  of  milk  as  soon  as  it 
comes  from  the  cow.  The  quantity  of  saltpetre  is  to  be  increased  as  the 
turnips  become  stronger.  The  feeding  of  cows  with  the  roots  alone  will,  as  the 
earl  of  Egremont  found,  prevent  the  milk  from  having  a  bad  taste.  Another 
method  of  removing  any  ill  flavor  arising  from  the  cows  having  eaten  turt)ips, 
consists  in  warming  the  cream,  and  afterwards  pouring  it  into  a  vessel  of 
cold  water;  from  which  the  cream  is  to  be  skimmed  as  it  rises  to  the  surface, 
and  thus  the  unpleasant  taste  will  be  left  behind  in  the  water. 


82  THE   COMPLETE   FAKMER 

ing  butter,  are  chiefly  derived  from  Dr.  Anderson's  valuable 
Essay  on  that  subject.  1.  The  milk  first  drawn  from  a  cow 
is  always  thinner,  and  inferior  in  quality  to  that  afterwards 
obtained;  and  this  richness  increases  gradually  to  the  very 
last  drop  that  can  be  drawn  from  the  udder.  2.  The  portion 
of  cream  rising  first  to  the  surface  is  richer  in  quality  and 
greater  in  quantity  than  that  which  rises  in  the  second  equal 
space  of  time,  and  so  of  the  rest,  the  cream  decreasing  and 
growing  worse  as  long  as  it  rises  at  all.  3.  Thick  milk  pro- 
duces a  smaller  proportion  of  cream  than  that  which  is  thin- 
ner, though  the  cream  of  the  former  is  of  a  richer  quality. 
If  thick  milk  therefore  be  diluted  with  water,  it  will  afford 
more  cream  than  it  would  have  yielded  in  its  pure  state, 
though  its  quality  will  at  the  same  time  be  inferior.  4. 
Milk  carried  about  in  pails,  or  other  vessels,  agitated  and 
partly  cooled  before  it  is  put  into  the  milkpans,  never  throws 
up  such  good  and  plentiful  cream  as  if  it  had  been  put  into 
proper  vessels  immediately  after  it  came  from  the  cow. 

From  these  fundamental  facts,  the  Doctor  deduces,  in  sub- 
stance, the  following  rules  : 

1.  The  cows  should  be  milked  as  near  the  dairy  as  possi- 
ble, to  prevent  the  necessity  of  carrying  and  cooling  the 
milk  before  it  be  put  into  the  dishes;  and  as  cows  are  much 
hurt  by  far  driving,  it  must  be  a  great  advantage  in  a  dairy 
farm  to  have  the  principal  grass  fields  as  near  the  dairy  or 
homestead  as  possible.  In  this  point  of  view,  also,  the  prac- 
tice of  feeding  cows  in  the  house,  rather  than  turning  them 
out  to  pasture  in  the  field,  must  be  obviously  beneficial.  * 

2.  Ihe  practice  of  putting  the  milk  of  all  the  cows  of  a 
large  dairy  into  one  vessel,  as  it  is  milked,  there  to  remain 
till  the  whole  milking  be  finished,  before  any  part  is  put  into 
the  milkpans,  seems  to  be  highly  injudicious,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  loss  sustained  by  the  agitation  and  cooling, 
but  also,  the  more  especially,  because  it  prevents  the  owner 

*  Mr.  Lawrence,  in  his  "  Treatise  on  Cattle,"  observes,  that  "  it  is  stated 
bv  theoretical  writers,  that  to  feed  cows  in  the  home  stall  increases  their 
quantitj' of  milk;  a  fact  which  various  experiments  compel  me  to  disprove. 
With  me  it  has  ever  had  the  effect  of  adding  to  the  substance  of  the  animal, 
and  of  diminishing  the  quantity  of  her  milk  ;  probably  from  defect  of  the 
exercise  she  was  wont  to  take  in  collecting  her  food,  and  the  selection  of  herb- 
age she  was  enabled  to  make."  This  writer,  however,  is  of  opinion,  that 
"  llie  aggregate  quantity  of  milk  in  a  dairy  may  be  enlarged  by  keeping 
pastures  free  from  the  tread  of  the  cows,  since  a  greater  number  may  be  kept, 
perhaps  by  one  third,  on  the  same  extent  of  ground;  at  the  same  time  the  ani- 
mals may  be  secured  from  the  harassing  and  debilitating  effects  of  the  sun  and 
flies." 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  83 

of  the  dairy  from  distinguishing  the  good  from  the  bad  cow's 
milk,  so  as  to  enlighten  his  judgment  respecting  the  profit 
that  he  may  derive  from  each.  Without  this  precaution,  he 
may  have  the  whole  bf  his  dairy  produce  greatly  debased  by 
the  milk  of  one  bad  cow  for  years  together,  without  being 
able  to  discover  it.  A  better  practice,  therefore,  would  be 
to  have  the  milk  drawn  from  each  cow  separately  put  into 
the  creaming  pans  as  soon  as  milked,  without  being  ever 
mixed  with  any  other  ;  and  if  these  pans  were  all  made  of 
such  a  size  as  to  be  able  to  contain  the  whole  of  one  cow's 
milk,  each  in  a  separate  pan,  the  careful  dai*  would  thus  be 
able  to  remark,  without  any  trouble,  the  quantity  of  milk 
afforded  by  each  cow  every  day,  as  well  as  the  peculiar 
qualities  of  the  cow's  milk.  And  if  the  same  cow's  milk 
were  always  to  be  placed  on  the  same  part  of  the  shelf,  hav- 
ing the  cow's  name  written  beneath,  there  never  could  be 
the  smallest  difficulty  in  ascertaining  which  of  the  cows  it 
would  be  for  the  owner's  interest  to  dispose  of,  and  which  he 
ought  to  keep  and  breed  from. 

3.  If  it  be  intended  to  make  butter  of  a  very  Jine  quality, 
it  will  be  advisable,  not  only  to  reject  entirely  the  milk  of  all 
those  cows  which  yield  cream  of  a  bad  quality,  but  also,  in 
every  case,  to  keep  the  milk  that  is  first  drawn  from  the  cow 
at  each  milking  entirely  separate  from  that  which  is  got  last; 
as  it  is  obvious,  if  this  be  not  done,  the  quality  of  the  butter 
must  be  greatly  debased,  without  adding  much  to  its  quanti- 
ty. It  is  also  obvious,  that  the  quality  of  the  butter  will  be 
improved  in  proportion  to  the  smallness  of  the  quantity  of 
the  last  drawn  milk  which  is  used,  as  it  increases  in  richness 
to  the  very  last  drop  that  can  be  drawn  from  the  udder  at 
that  time  ;  so  that  those  who  wish  to  be  singularly  nice  will 
do  well  to  keep  for  their  best  butter  a  very  small  proportion 
of  the  last  drawn  milk. 

Dr.  Anderson  proceeds  to  state  in  substance,  that  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland  the  common  practice  is  to  let  the  calf 
suck  till  the  dairymaid  judges  that  it  has  had  enough  ;  it  is 
then  separated,  the  legs  of  the  mother  having  been  previous- 
ly shackled  by  a  very  simple  contrivance,  to  oblige  her  to 
stand  still,  and  the  dairymaid  milks  off  what  is  left  by  the 
calf  In  this  way,  he  observes,  the  Highland  butter  has 
been   greatly   celebrated   as   the   "  richest   marrowy  butter 

*  A  provincial  word,  denoting  tlie  person  wiio  has  the  chief  concern  in  a 
dairy. 


84  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

which  can  anywhere  be  met  with."  The  milk  which  is 
first  drawn,  and  consequently  of  inferior  quality,  may  be 
converted  into  an  inferior  kind  of  butter,  sold  sweet,  or  made 
into  cheeses,  which,  by  being  made  of  sweet  milk,  if  made 
with  care  and  skill,  may  be  of  fine  quality. 

Churning  ought  to  be  regularly  continued  till  the  butter 
comes,  or  is  formed.  If  the  motion  in  summer  be  too  quick, 
the  butter  will,  in  consequence,  ferment,  and  become  ill- 
tasted  ;  and,  in  winter,  it  will  go  back.  Churning,  it  is  said, 
may  be  made  easier  by  putting  the  bottom  of  the  pump  churn 
about  one  foot  deep  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water,  and  continu- 
ing it  there  till  the  butter  is  made.  The  addition  of  one  or 
two  table-spoonfuls  of  distilled  vinegar,  after  churning 
awhile,  will,  it  is  said,  produce  butter  much  sooner,  in  many 
instances,  than  it  can  be  formed  without  such  addition. 

Some  writers  advise  to  wash  the  butter,  after  it  is  formed, 
thoroughly  in  several  waters,  till  all  the  milk  is  removed. 
Dr.  Anderson,  however,  advises  to  force  the  milk  out  of  the 
cavities  of  the  butter  by  means  of  a  flat,  wooden  ladle,  fur- 
nished with  a  short  handle,  at  the  same  time  agitating  the 
butter  as  little  as  possible,  lest  it  become  tough  and  gluey. 
"  The  beating  up  of  butter,"  he  observes,  "  by  the  hand,  is 
an  indelicate  practice,  particularly  if  it  be  constitutionally 
warm;  and  as  it  is  hurtful  to  the  quality  of  the  butter  to  pour 
cold  water  on  it  during  this  operation,  the  butter,  if  too  soft 
to  receive  the  impression  of  the  mould,  may  be  put  into 
small  vessels,  and  there  be  permitted  to  float  in  a  trough  of 
cold  water  beneath  the  table,  without  welling  the  hulltr,  which 
will  soon  become  sufficiently  firm.  Or,  when  butter  is  first 
made,  after  as  much  of  the  milk  has  been  got  out  as  possi- 
ble, it  may  be  thinly  spread  on  a  marble  slab,  and  the  re- 
maining moisture  he  absorbed  by  patting  it  with  clean  dry 
towels." 

It  is  said,  in  Bordley's  "  Husbandry,"  that  "dashing  in 
water,  and  then,  without  pause,  clearing  the  butter  from 
every  particle  of  the  water,  is  widely  different  from  washing 
butter  by  kneading  and  letting  it  remain  at  all  in  the  water. 
Very  good  butter  for  flavor,  color,  and  consistence,  is  made 
by  one  who  washes  it  twice,  but  never  lets  it  remain  in  the 
water  a  moment."  Another  butter-maker  says,  mix  the  salt 
in  the  butter  in  the  evening,  and  let  it  rest  till  morning,  then 
work  out  the  liquor,  but  never  let  it  be  once  touched  with  water. 

Dr.  Anderson  remarks,  that  a  considerable  degree  of 
strength   as  well  as  dexterity  is  required  in  the  working  of 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  85 

butter.  The  thing  wanted  is,  to  force  out  the  milk  entirely, 
with  as  little  tawing  [working]  of  the  butter  as  possible,  for 
if  the  milk  be  not  entirely  taken  away,  the  butter  will  spoil 
in  a  short  time;  and  if  it  be  much  worked  the  butter  will 
become  tough  and  gluey,  which  greatly  debases  its  quality. 

Before  you  put  butter  into  the  vessels  which  are  to  contain 
it,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  they  be  well  seasoned  by 
frequent  washing  and  exposure  to  the  air  for  two  or  three 
weeks.  As  it  is  difficult  to  season  new  firkins,  it  will  always 
be  preferable  to  employ  those  which  have  been  used.  The 
most  speedy  method  of  seasoning  firkins  is  by  the  use  of  un- 
slacked  lime,  or  a  large  quantity  of  salt  and  water,  well 
boiled,  with  which  they  should  be  repeatedly  scrubbed,  and 
afterwards  thrown  into  cold  water,  to  remain  there  three  or 
four  days,  till  wanted.  They  should  then  be  scrubbed  as 
before,  and  well  rinsed  with  cold  water;  and  before  the  but- 
ter is  put  in,  every  part  of  the  inside  of  the  firkin  must  be 
well  rubbed  with  salt. 

Butter  may  be  salted  by  working  into  it  one  or  two  ounces 
of  salt,  after  the  buttermilk  has  been  forced  out.  The  salt 
should  be  thoroughly  incorporated,  and  be  of  the  best  and 
purest  quality.  Dr.  Anderson,  however,  recommends  the 
following  preparation,  which  he  has  experienced  to  be  much 
superior,  as  it  not  only  prevents  the  butter  from  becoming  in 
any  degree  rancid,  but  also  improves  its  appearance,  and  im- 
parts a  sweeter  and  richer  taste  than  could  be  given  by  com- 
mon salt  only.  For  every  pound  of  butter  take  half  an 
ounce  of  best  common  salt,  one  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  loaf 
sugar,  and  one  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  saltpetre;  beat  and 
blend  the  whole  completely  together.  Butter  thus  cured, 
should  stand  three  or  four  weeks  before  it  is  used,  that  the 
salts  may  be  well  mixed.  The  best  butter  is  made  in  sum- 
mer, but  by  adding  a  certain  portion  (which  experience 
alone  can  determine)  of  the  juice  expressed  from  the  pulp  of 
carrots  to  the  cream  previously  to  churning,  winter-made 
butter  will  thus  acquire  the  appearance  and  flavor  of  butter 
that  has  been  churned  during  the  prime  part  of  the  summer 
season. 

A  writer  for  "The  Journal  of  Humanity  "  gives  the  fol- 
lowing rules  for  making  good  butter.  "  If  you  have  four  or 
five  cows,  it  is  best  to  churn  every  day  ;  and  by  no  means 
less  frequently  than  every  other  day.  If  you  cannot  churn 
every  day,  throw  into  the  cream,  when  gathered,  a  handful 
of  nice  salt.     In  very  warm  weather,  when  milk  sours  soon, 


86  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

put  two  heaping  table-spoonfuls  of  salt  into  every  pail  of 
milk  before  straining.  The  quantity  as  well  as  the  quality 
of  the  butter  is  greatly  improved  by  this  method.  If  you 
have  ice,  put  a  small  piece  in  every  pan  of  milk,  and  also 
into  the  cream  when  you  churn.  If  you  have  no  ice,  put 
the  cream  into  a  pail,  and  hang  it  in  the  well  twelve 
hours  before  churning.  In  the  warm  season,  cream  should 
be  skimmed  as  soon  as  it  is  in  the  least  sour,  and  in  the 
coldest  weather,  milk  should  not  stand  more  than  thirty-six 
or  forty-eight  hours.  The  utmost  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  every  article  used  in  making  butter  perfectly  sweet,  by 
frequent  and  thorough  scalding." 

A  writer  for  "  The  New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  VI.  p. 
370,)  observed  as  follows  : 

"  It  does  not,  in  my  opinion,  improve  the  butter  to  have 
the  milk  sour  before  the  cream  is  gathered;  but  at  this  sea- 
son of  the  year  [June]  it  can  hardly  be  prevented.  It 
should,  however,  never  be  suffered  to  stand  till  the  milk  cur- 
dles. When  the  cream  is  gathered  it  should  be  set  in  an 
open  vessel,  where  the  air  can  have  free  access  to  its  sur- 
face; and  during  the  time  that  the  cream  is  gathering  for  a 
churning  of  butter,  it  should  have  a  stick  or  spoon  kept  in 
the  vessel  where  the  cream  is,  by  which  the  cream  should  be 
stirred  at  least  half  a  dozen  times  a  day,  enough  to  mix  it 
up  well,  and  bring  a  new  portion  of  it  to  the  air;  and  it 
should  stand  before  the  Avindow  of  the  milk  room,  or  some 
other,  the  most  airy  position  afforded  by  the  room.  When 
you  have  gathered  a  mess  for  this  season  of  the  year,  fill 
your  churn  over  night  with  cold  water,  and  empty  it  in  the 
morning.  Put  in  your  cream  and  churn  it  with  a  regular, 
steady,  and  not  too  rapid  motion.  It  will  generally  come  in 
from  ten  to  twenty  minutes,  and  when  fetched  it  needs  no 
coloring  matter. 

"I  know  that  women  say  flies  will  get  into  the  cream  if 
left  uncovered;  let  them  get  in,  and  pick  them  out,  rather 
than  cover  up  the  vessel  containing  the  cream.* 

"The  windows  to  milk  rooms,  in  many  houses,  are  not 
sufficiently  large,  with  from  four  to  eight  small  panes  of 
glass.  This  affords  too  stinted  a  portion  of  air.  If  your 
glass  is  small,  you  want  a  twenty-four  lighted  window   to 

*  Perhaps  a  covering  of  gauze,  millinet,  or  other  light  and  porous  sutetance, 
or  a  lid  perforated  with  small  holes,  might  admit  air  and  exclude  the  flies.  — 
EdiloT. 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  87 

the  milk  room,  with  bHnds  to  exclude  the  sun.  If  two 
such  windows,  so  situated  as  to  afford  a  draught  of  air,  the 
better.  But  stint  your  milk  room  of  air,  and  keep  the  cream- 
pot  covered  tight  to  exclude  flies,  and  your  butter  will  be 
tohite  and  bitter,  besides  being  a  long  while  coming." 

Making  Butter  in  Winter.  A  friend  has  furnished  us  with 
the  following  observations  on  this  subject: 

"  In  February,  1825,  I  spent  a  iew  days  with  Dr.  Jones, 
who  lives  near  Hyco  Bridge,  in  Halifax  County,  Virginia. 
Mrs.  Jones  prepares  her  cream  for  churning  by  heating  the 
milk  after  it  has  stood  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours. 

"She  places  it  over  coals  the  evening  before  churning, 
until  the  milk  as  it  stands  with  the  cream  on  is  heated  ready 
to  boiling,  when  she  sets  it  by  till  morning.  The  cream  is 
then  skimmed  off,  and  churned  by  stirring  in  an  earthen 
vessel.  The  butter  is  delicately  white  and  clear  in  its  com- 
plexion, firm,  and  fine  flavored. 

"  This  process  would,  no  doubt,  prove  more  successful  in 
any  part  of  New  England,  since  the  climate  of  Virginia  is 
generally  less  favorable  to  the  dairy  than  that  of  the  eastern 
States." 

From  the  same  pen  we  are  favored  with  the  following: 

Garlic  in  Butter.  "  When  milk  has  the  flavor  of  garlic, 
or  wild  onion,  add  a  quart  of  boiling  water  to  each  gallon, 
and  set  it  away  in  vessels,  having  the  bottom  covered  the 
thickness  of  an  inch  only  with  milk.  The  cream  that  rises 
will  be  sweet  and  free  from  any  disagreeable  flavor." 

L.  Peters,  Esq.  of  Westborough,  Massachusetts,  says, 
relative  to  making  winter  butter,  "My  wife's  method  is,  to 
set  the  vessels  in  which  the  cream  is  collected  near  the  fire 
a  while  before  it  is  put  into  the  churn,  and  frequently  stir  it 
a  little,  and  turn  the  vessels,  that  it  may  be  warmed  equally, 
till  it  is  as  warm  as  cream  in  the  summer,  as  near  as  she  can 
judge;  and  before  putting  it  into  the  churn,  that  is  scalded 
with  scalding  water.  When  the  churning  commences,  it  is 
done  moderately,  and  if  there  is  any  frothy  appearance,  then 
warm  water  is  put  in,  the  churn  put  near  the  fire,  and 
occasionally  turned,  till  the  temperature  is  altered,  and  the 
churning  is  finished,  which  is  generally  in  a  short  time.  If 
a  dash  churn  is  used,  set  it  into  a  tub  of  hot  water,  and  fre- 
quently move  the  dash  a  little,  to  mix  the  warm  and  cold 
cream,  till  it  is  of  a  suitable  warmth,  which  an  observing 
person  will  soon  ascertain  by  practice." — JVew  England 
Farmer,  Vol.  VI.  p.  370. 


88  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

A  valuable  paper  on  the  making  of  butter  in  cold  weather, 
by  the  Rev.  W.  Allen,  states  the  results  of  several  trials,  by 
which  it  appears  that  butter  may  be  obtained  in  the  coldest 
weather  within  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes,  if  the  cream  at 
the  commencement  of  the  churning  is  brought  to  the  tem- 
perature of  about  seventy-five  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

E.  H.  Derby,  Esq.  of  Salem,  Massachusetts,  recommends 
the  making  of  butter  by  the  aid  of  frost,  as  follows: 

"  The  milk  when  taken  from  the  cows  is  immediately 
strained  into  earthen  pans,  and  set  in  the  coldest  part  of  the 
house;  as  soon  as  the  frost  begins  to  operate,  a  separation 
takes  place,  the  cream  rises  in  a  thick  paste  to  the  top,  and 
leaves  the  milk,  without  a  particle  of  cream,  frozen  in  the 
pan.  The  cream  is  not  so  hard  but  that  it  can  be  easily 
scraped  off  with  a  spoon,  to  the  solid  ice;  it  is  then  set  aside 
until  a  sufficient  quantity  is  collected  for  churning,  when 
it  is  warmed  just  so  much  as  to  thaw  the  cream  sufficiently 
to  put  it  into  the  churn.  I  have  never  known  it  to  require 
more  than  five  minutes  to  convert  such  cream  into  butter, 
after  the  churning  had  commenced." 


CHEESE, —  Method  of  making.  "  The  milk  is  universal- 
ly set  for  cheese  as  soon  as  it  comes  from  the  cow. 

"The  management  of  the  curd  depends  on  the  kind  of 
cheese:  thin  cheese  requires  the  least  labor  and  attention. 

"  Breaking  the  curd  is  done  with  the  hand  and  dish.  The 
finer  the  curd  is  broken  the  better,  particularly  in  thick 
cheeses.  The  best  color  of  this  kind  of  cheese  is  that  of 
bees-wax,  which  is  produced  by  annotta,  rubbed  into  the 
milk  after  it  is  warmed.  The  dairywornan  is  to  judge  of 
the  quality  by  the  color  of  the  milk,  as  it  differs  much  in 
strength.  The  runnet  is  prepared  by  taking  some  whey 
and  salting  till  it  will  bear  an  egg;  it  is  then  suffered  to 
stand  over  night,  and  in  the  morning  it  is  skimmed  and  rack- 
ed off  clear;  to  this  is  added  an  equal  quantity  of  water 
orine,  strong  as  the  whey,  and  into  this  mixture  some  sweet- 
briar,  thyme,  or  some  other  sweet  herbs;  also  a  little  black 
pepper  and  saltpetre;  the  herbs  are  kept  in  the  brine  three 
or  four  days,  after  which  it  is  decanted  clear  from  them. 
Into  six  quarts  of  this  liquor  four  large  calves'  bags,  or,  more 
properly  called,  calves'  stomachs,  are  put.  No  part  of  the 
preparation  is  heated,  and  frequently  the  calves'  bags  are 
only  steeped  in  cold  salt  and  water.     Turning  the  milk  dif- 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  89 

fers  in  different  dairies,  no  two  dairywomen  conducting  ex- 
actly alike. 

"  Settinfthe  milk  too  hot  inclines  the  cheese  to  heave,  and 
cooling  it  with  cold  water  produces  a  similar  effect.  The 
degree  of  heat  varies  according  to  the  weather.  The  curd 
when  formed  is  broken  with  what  is  called  a  treple  cheese 
knife.  The  use  of  this  is  to  keep  the  fat  in  the  cheese.  It 
is  drawn  the  depth  of  the  curd  two  or  three  times  across  the 
tub,  to  give  the  whey  an  opportunity  of  running  off  clear; 
after  a  few  minutes  the  knife  is  more  freely  used,  and  the 
curd  is  cut  into  small  pieces  like  checkers,  and  is  broken 
fine  in  the  whey  with  the  hand  and  a  wooden  dish.  The 
curd  being  allowed  about  half  an  hour  to  settle,  the  whey  is 
laded  off  with  the  dish,  after  it  is  pretty  well  separated  from 
the  curd. 

"It  is  an  almost  invariable  practice  to  scald  the  curd. 
The  mass  is  first  broken  very  fine,  and  then  the  scalding 
whey  is  added  to  it  and  stirred  a  few  minutes;  some  make 
use  of  hot  water  in  preference  to  whey,  and  it  is  in  both 
cases  heated  according  to  the  nature  of  the  curd;  if  it  is 
soft,  the  whey  or  water  is  used  nearly  boiling;  but  if  hard, 
it  is  only  used  a  little  hotter  than  the  hand.  After  the  curd 
is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  hot  stuff,  it  is  suffered  to  stand 
a  few  minutes  to  settle,  and  is  then  separated  as  at  the  first 
operation.  After  the  scalding  liquor  is  separated,  a  vat,  or 
what  is  often  called  a  cheese  hoop,  is  laid  across  the  cheese 
ladder  over  the  tub,  and  the  curd  is  crumbled  into  it  with  the 
hands,  and  pressed  into  the  vat,  to  squeeze  out  the  whey. 
The  vat  being  filled  as  full  and  as  firmly  as  the  hand  alone 
can  fill  it,  and  rounded  up  in  the  middle,  a  cheese  cloth  is 
spread  over  it,  and  the  curd  is  turned  out  of  the  hoop  into 
the  cloth;  the  vat  is  then  washed,  and  the  inverted  mass  of 
curds,  with  the  cloth  under  it,  is  returned  into  the  vat  and 
put  into  the  press;  after  standing  two  or  three  hours  in  the 
press,  the  vat  is  taken  out,  and  the  cloth  is  taken  off,  wash- 
ed, and  put  round  the  cheese,  and  it  is  replaced  in  the  vat 
and  in  the  press.  In  about  seven  or  eight  hours  it  is  taken 
out  of  the  press  and  salted,  the  cheese  is  placed  on  a  board, 
and  a  handful  of  salt  is  rubbed  all  over  it,  and  the  edges  are 
pared  off  if  necessary  ;  another  handful  of  salt  is  strewed 
on  the  upper  side,  and  as  much  left  as  will  stick  to  it;  after- 
wards it  is  turned  into  the  bare  vat  without  a  cloth,  and  an 
equal  quantity  of  salt  is  added  to  it,  and  the  cheese  is  return- 
ed into  the  press;   here  it  continues  one  night,  and  the  next 


90  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

morninor  it  is  turned  in  the  vat,  and  continues  till  the  suc- 
ceedino-  morning,  and  the  curd  is  taken  out  and  placed  on 
the  dairy  shelf:  here  they  are  turned  every  day  or  every 
other  day,  as  the  weather  may  be.  If  it  is  hot  and  dry,  the 
windows  and  door  are  kept  shut;  but  if  wet  or  moist,  the 
door  and  windows  are  kept  open  night  and  day." 

Cleaning  the  Cheese.  "The  cheeses  having  remained 
about  ten  days  after  leaving  the  press,  are  to  be  washed  and 
scraped  in  the  following  manner:  a  large  tub  of  cold  sweet 
whey  is  placed  on  the  floor,  the  cheeses  are  immersed  in  it, 
where  they  continue  one  hour,  or  longer,  if  necessary,  to 
soften  the  rind.  They  are  then  taken  out  and  scraped  with 
a  common  case-knife,  with  great  care,  so  as  not  to  injure  the 
tender  rind,  till  every  part  of  the  cheese  is  smooth  ;  they 
are  after  the  last  operation  rinsed  in  the  whey  and  wiped 
clean  with  a  coarse  cloth,  and  placed  in  an  airy  situation 
to  dry,  after  which  they  are  placed  in  the  cheese  room. 
The  floor  of  the  cheese  room  is  generally  prepared  by  rub- 
bing it  with  bean  or  potato  tops,  or  any  succulent  herb,  till 
it  appears  of  a  black  wet  color.  On  this  floor  the  cheeses 
are  placed,  and  turned  twice  a  week;  their  edges  are  wiped 
hard  with  a  cloth  once  a  week,  and  the  floor  is  cleansed  and 
rubbed  with  fresh  herbs  once  a  fortnight.  They  must  not  lie 
too  Ions  or  they  will  stick  to  the  floor.  This  preparation  of 
the  floor  gives  the  cheese  a  blue  coat,  which  is  considered 
of  great  consequence." 

Stilton  Cheese,  how  made.  "  The  Stilton  cheese,  which 
may  be  called  the  Parmesan  of  England,  is  not  confined  to 
StiUon  and  its  vicinity,  for  many  farmers  in  Huntingdon- 
shire, and  also  in  Rutland  and  Northamptonshire,  make  a 
similar  sort,  sell  them  for  the  same  price,  and  give  them  the 
name  of  the  Stilton  cheeses. 

"  Take  the  night's  cream  and  put  it  into  the  morning's 
new  milk  with  the  runnet  ;  when  the  curd  is  separated,  let 
it  not  be  broken,  as  is  done  with  other  cheese,  but  take  it 
out,  disturbing  it  as  little  as  possible,  and  sufi'er  it  to  dry 
gradually  in  a  sieve  ;  and  as  the  whey  separates,  compress 
it  gradually  till  it  has  acquired  a  firm  consistence  ;  then 
place  it  in  a  wooden  hoop,  and  suffer  it  to  dry  very  gradual- 
ly on  a  board,  taking  care  at  the  same  time  to  turn  it  daily 
with  close  binders  round,  and  which  must  be  tightened  as 
the  cheese  acquires  more  solidity." 

Cheese,  Skippers  iyi.  "Wrap  the  cheese  in  thin  brown 
paper,  so  thin  that  moisture  may  strike  through  soon  ;   dig  a 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  91 

hole  in  good  sweet  earth  about  two  feet  deep,  in  which  the 
cheese  must  be  buried  about  thirty-six  hours,  and  the  skip- 
pers will  be  found  all  on  the  outside  of  the  cheese  ;  brush 
them  off  immediately,  and  you  will  find  your  cheese  sound 
and  good." 

To  prevent  Cheese  having  a  rancid,  nauseous  flavor.  "  Put 
about  one  table-spoonful  of  salt  to  each  gallon  of  milk,  when 
taken  from  the  cows  in  the  evening,  for  the  cheese  to  be 
made  the  next  day  ;  put  the  salt  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel 
that  is  to  receive  the  milk  ;  it  will  increase  the  curd,  and 
prevent  the  milk  from  growing  sour  or  putrid,  the  hottest 
nights  in  summer."  —  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Rcposito7-y. 

[Tlie  following  is  from  the  pen  of  a  friend,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
several  valuable  articles,  written  expressly  fur  this  work.] 

"  To  make  Cheese.  A  person  whose  dairy  enjoys  a  high 
reputation  gives  the  following  directions  for  making  cheese  : 
'•'  'Take  a  gallon  and  a  half  of  water  and  throw  into  it  a 
pint  and  a  half  of  common  salt.  Boil  and  skim  it,  and  add 
three  or  four  ounces  of  rose  leaves.  After  it  is  sufficiently 
steeped,  let  it  cool,  and  put  in  one  ounce  of  saltpetre  and 
four  runnets.  A  great-spoonful  of  this  preparation  is  enough 
to  turn  rifteen  gallons  of  milk.  When  the  curd  is  made,  dip 
it  out  carefully,  and  put  it  into  a  cloth  that  sits  in  a  vessel 
with  its  bottom  perforated  with  holes.  Let  a  person  on  each 
side  of  the  cloth  take  up  the  corners,  and  raise  the  curd 
carefully,  and  turn  it  from  one  side  to  the  other  in  the  cloth, 
in  order  to  the  better  draining  off'  the  whey  ;  then  lay  it  as 
before,  in  a  vessel  perforated  with  holes,  and  thus  turn  it 
once  in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  in  the  intervals  place 
a  follower  upon  it,  Avith  a  stone  above  ;  cutting  the  curd 
through  each  time.  When  the  whey  is  out,  season  it  with 
salt  to  suit  your  palate,  while  cutting  it  up  in  small  pieces 
with  a  suitable  knife  ;  then  put  it  up  for  pressing.  Let  it 
stand  under  thirty  or  forty  pounds'  weight  twenty-four  hours, 
and  then  turn  it,  and  let  it  stand  twenty-four  hours  more  un- 
der the  same.  A  severe  pressure,  which  is  sometimes  given, 
spoils  a  rich  cheese  entirely. 

"  '  Set  your  cheese  in  closets  made  for  the  purpose,  which 
flies  cannot  enter. 

"  '  The  outside  may  be  rubbed  with  a  mixture  of  butter 
and  Spanish  brown,  which  answers  very  well,  but  other 
mixtures  may  answer  equally  well. 

"  '  A  small  quantity  of  otter,  say  the  size  of  a  kernel  of 
rye,  setved  up  in  a  cloih,  may  be  put  in  each  curd. 


92  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

"  'Never  wash  out  your  cheese  cloth  with  soap,  but  boil 
it  out  in  whey.'  " 


HEMP.  The  following  essay  on  the  culture  of  Hemp,  by 
Hon.  Henry  Clay,  was  originally  published  in  "  The  West- 
ern Agriculturist."  It  is  a  complete  treatise  on  the  best 
manner  of  raising  and  preparing  an  article,  which  always 
commands  cash  sufficient  to  reward  liberally  the  cultivator 
who  proceeds  correctly  in  obtaining  this  valuable  product. 
The  author  of  the  essay  is  not  less  favorably  known  as  a 
statesman  than  as  a  practical  and  scientific  agriculturist,  and 
his  name  will  give  it  that  weight  and  currency  with  Ameri- 
can farmers  which  is  due  to  its  intrinsic  excellence. 

"The  preparation  of  the  ground  for  sowing  the  seed  is  by 
the  plough  and  horses,  until  the  clods  are  sufficiently  pul- 
verized or  dissolved,  and  the  surface  of  the  field  is  rendered 
even  and  smooth.  It  should  be  as  carefully  prepared  as  if 
it  were  for  flax.  This  most  important  point,  too  often  neg- 
lected, cannot  be  attended  to  too  much.  Scarcely  any  oth- 
er crop  better  rewards  diligence  and  careful  husbandry.  Fall 
or  winter  ploughing  is  practised  with  advantage  ;  it  is  indis- 
pensable in  old  meadows,  or  old  pasture  grounds,  intended 
for  producing  hemp. 

"  Plants  for  seed  are  ordinarily  reared  in  a  place  distinct 
from  that  in  which  they  are  cultivated  for  the  lint.  In  this 
respect,  the  usage  is  different  from  that  which  is  understood 
to  prevail  in  Europe.  The  seeds  which  are  intended  to  re- 
produce seeds  for  the  crop  of  the  next  year,  are  sowed  in 
drills  about  four  feet  apart.  When  they  are  grown  suffi- 
ciently to  distinguish  between  the  male  and  female  stalks, 
the  former  are  pulled  and  thrown  away,  and  the  latter  are 
thinned,  leaving  the  stalks  separated  seven  or  eight  inches 
from  each  other.  This  operation  is  usually  performed  in 
the  blooming  season,  when  the  sexual  character  of  the  plants 
is  easily  discernible  ;  the  male  alone  blossoming,  and,  when 
agitated,  throwing  off  farina,  a  yellow  dust  or  flour,  which 
falls  and  colors  the  ground,  or  any  object  that  comes  in  con- 
tact with  it.  A  few  of  the  male  plants  had  better  be  left, 
scattered  through  the  drill,  until  the  farina  is  completely  dis- 
charged, for  an  obvious  reason.  Between  the  drills  a  plough 
is  run  sufficiently  often  to  keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds 
and  grass  ;  and  between  the  stalks  in  each  drill  the  hoe  is 
employed  for  the  same  object.     The  seed  plants  are  gen- 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  \)3 

erally  cut  after  the  first  smart  frost,  between  the  2oth  Sep- 
tember and  the  middle  of  October,  and  carried  to  a  barn  or 
stack-yard,  where  the  seeds  arc  easily  detached  by  the 
common  flail.  They  should  be  gathered  after  a  slight,  but 
before  a  severe  frost  ;  and,  as  they  fall  out  very  easily,  it  is 
advisable  to  haul  the  plants  on  a  sled,  and,  if  convenient, 
when  they  are  wet.  If  transported  on  a  cart  or  wagon,  a 
sheet  should  be  spread  to  catch  the  seed  as  they  shatter  out. 
After  the  seeds  are  separated,  the  stalks  which  bore  them 
being  too  large,  coarse,  and  harsh,  to  produce  lint,  are  usu- 
ally thrown  away  ;  they  may  be  profitably  employed  in  mak- 
ing charcoal  for  the  use  of  powder-mills.  In  Europe,  where 
the  male  and  female  plants  are  promiscuously  grown  togeth- 
er in  the  same  field,  both  for  seeds  and  for  lint,  the  male 
stalks  are  first  gathered,  and  the  female  suffered  to  remain 
growing  until  the  seeds  ai'e  ripe,  when  they  are  also  gath- 
ered ;  the  seeds  secured  and  lint  obtained,  after  the  rotting, 
from  both  descriptions. 

"  After  the  seeds  are  threshed  out,  it  is  advisable  to  spread 
them  on  a  floor,  to  cure  properly  and  prevent  their  rotting, 
before  they  are  finally  put  away  for  use  the  next  spring. 
Seeds  are  not  generally  used  unless  they  were  secured  the 
fall  previous  to  their  being  sown,  as  it  is  believed  they  will 
not  vegetate  if  older  ;  but  it  has  been  ascei'tained  that  when 
they  are  properly  cured  and  kept  dry,  they  will  come  up 
after  the  first  year.  It  is  important  to  prevent  them  from 
heating,  which  destroys  the  vegetating  property,  and  for 
that  purpose  they  should  be  thinly  spread  on  a  sheltered 
floor. 

"The  seeds,  whether  to  reproduce  seeds  only,  or  the  lint, 
are  sowed  about  the  same  time.  Opinions  vary  as  to  the 
best  period.  It  depends  a  good  deal  upon  the  season.  The 
plant  is  very  tender  when  it  first  shoots  up,  and  is  affected 
by  frost.  Some  have  sowed  as  early  as  the  1st  of  April  ; 
but  it  is  generally  agreed,  that  all  the  month  of  May,  and 
about  the  10th  of  it  especially,  is  the  most  favorable  time. 
An  experienced  and  successful  hemp  grower,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Lexington,  being  asked  the  best  time  to  sow 
hemp,  answered,  immediately  before  a  rain.  And  undoubt- 
edly it  is  very  fortunate  to  have  a  moderate  rain  directly 
after  sowing. 

"  When  the  object  is  to  make  a  crop  of  hemp,  the  seeds 
are  sown  broad-cast.  The  usual  quantity  is  a  bushel  and  a 
half  to  the  acre  ;  but  here  again  the  farmers  difTer,  some 


94  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

using  two  bushels  or  even  two  and  a  half.  IMuch  depends 
on  the  strength  and  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  care  with 
which  it  has  been  prepared,  as  well  as  the  season.  To  these 
causes  may  be  ascribed  the  diversity  of  opinion  and  prac- 
tice. The  ground  can  only  sustain  and  nourish  a  certain 
quantity  of  plants  ;  and  if  that  limit  be  passed,  the  surplus 
will  be  smothered  in  the  growth.  When  the  seeds  are  sown, 
they  are  ploughed  or  harrowed  in  ;  ploughing  is  best  in  old 
ground,  as  it  avoids  the  injurious  effect  of  a  beating  rain, 
and  the  consequent  baking  of  the  earth.  It  would  be  also 
beneficial  subsequently  to  roll  the  ground  with  a  heavy 
roller. 

"  After  the  seeds  are  sown,  the  labors  of  the  cultivator 
are  suspended,  until  the  plants  are  ripe,  and  in  a  state  to  be 
gathered  ;  every  thing  in  the  intermediate  time  being  left 
to  the  operations  of  nature.  If  the  season  be  favorable  un- 
til the  plants  are  sufficiently  high  to  shade  the  ground,  (which 
they  will  do  in  a  few  weeks,  at  six  or  eight  inches'  height,) 
there  is  strong  probability  of  a  good  crop.  When  they  at- 
tain that  height,  but  few  articles  sustain  the  effect  of  bad 
seasons  better  than  hemp. 

"  It  is  generally  ripe  and  ready  to  be  gathered  about  the 
middle  of  August,  varying  according  to  the  time  of  sowing. 
Some  sow  at  different  periods,  in  order  that  the  crop  may 
not  all  ripen  at  the  same  time,  and  that  a  press  of  labor  in 
rearing  it  may  be  thus  avoided.  The  maturity  of  the  plant 
is  determined  by  the  evaporation  of  the  farina,  already  no- 
ticed, and  the  leaves  of  the  plant  exhibiting  a  yellowish  hue: 
it  is  then  generally  supposed  to  be  ripe,  but  it  is  safest  to 
wait  a  few  days  longer.  Very  little  attentive  observation 
will  enable  any  one  to  judge  when  it  is  fully  ripe.  In  that 
respect  it  is  a  very  accommodating  crop,  for  if  gathered  a 
little  too  soon,  the  lint  is  not  materially  injured,  and  it  will 
wait  the  leisure  of  the  farmer  some  ten  days  or  a  fortnight 
after  it  is  entirely  ripe. 

"  Two  modes  of  gathering  the  plants  are  practised,  one 
by  pulling  them  up  by  the  roots,  an  easy  operation  with  an 
able-bodied  man,  and  the  other  by  cutting  them  about  two 
inches  (the  nearer  the  better)  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  From  a  quarter  to  a  third  of  an  acre  is  the  com- 
mon task  of  an  average  laborer,  whether  the  one  or  the  oth- 
er mode  is  practised.  The  objections  to  pulling  are,  that  the 
plants  with  their  roots  remaining  connected  with  them,  are 
not  aflerwards  so  easily  handled  in  the  several  operations 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  95 

which  they  must  undergo  ;  that  all  parts  of  the  plant  do  not 
rot  equally  and  alike,  when  exposed  to  the  dew  and  rain  ; 
and,  finally,  that  before  you  put  them  to  the  brake,  when  the 
root  should  be  separated  from  the  stalk,  the  root  drags  off 
with  it  some  of  the  lint.  The  objection  to  cutting  is,  that 
you  lose  two  or  three  inches  of  the  best  part  of  the  plant 
nearest  the  root.  Pulling,  being  the  most  ancient  method, 
is  most  generally  practised.  I  prefer,  upon  the  whole,  cut- 
ting ;  and  I  believe  the  number  who  prefer  it  is  yearly  in- 
creasing. When  pulled,  it  is  done  with  the  hand,  which  is 
better  for  the  protection  of  an  old  leather  glove.  The  la- 
borer catches  twenty  or  thirty  plants  together,  with  both 
hands,  and  by  a  sudden  jerk  draws  them  without  much  diih- 
culty.  The  operation  of  cutting  is  performed  with  a  knife, 
often  made  out  of  an  old  scythe,  resembling  a  sickle,  though 
not  so  long  but  broader.  This  knife  is  applied  much  in  the 
same  way  as  the  sickle,  except  that  the  laborer  stoops  more. 
"  Whether  pulled  or  cut,  the  plants  are  carefully  laid  on 
the  ground,  the  evener  the  better,  to  cure  ;  which  they  do 
in  two  or  three  days,  in  dry  weather.  A  light  rain  falling  on 
them  whilst  lying  down  is  thought  by  some  to  be  beneficial, 
inasmuch  as  the  leaves,  of  which  they  should  be  deprived, 
may  be  easier  shaken  off  or  detached.  When  cured,  the 
plants  are  set  up  in  the  field  in  which  they  were  produced, 
in  shocks  of  convenient  size,  the  roots  or  butt  ends  resting 
on  the  ground,  and  the  tops  united  above  by  a  band  made  of 
the  plants  themselves.  Previous  to  putting  them  up  in 
shocks,  most  cultivators  tie  the  plants  in  small  hand  bundles 
of  such  a  size  as  that  each  can  be  conveniently  held  in  one 
hand.  Before  the  shocks  are  formed,  the  leaves  of  the 
plants  should  be  rapidly  knocked  off  with  a  rough  paddle  or 
hooked  stick.  Some  suffer  the  plants  to  remain  in  these 
shocks  until  the  plants  are  spread  down  to  be  rotted.  Oth- 
ers, again,  collect  the  shocks  together  as  soon  as  they  can 
command  leisure,  (and  it  is  clearly  the  best,)  and  form  them 
into  stacks.  A  few  farmers  permit  these  stacks  to  remain 
over  a  whole  year,  before  the  plants  are  exposed  to  be  rot- 
ted. By  remaining  that  period  in  stalks,  the  plants  go 
through  a  sweat,  or  some  other  process,  that  improves  very 
much  the  appearance,  and,  I  believe,  the  quality  of  the  lint, 
and  this  improvement  fully  compensates  the  loss  of  time  in 
bringing  it  to  market.  The  lint  has  a  soft  texture  and  a 
lively  hue,  resembling  water-rotted  hemp  ;  and  I  once  sold 
a  box  of  it  in  the  Baltimore  market  at  the   price  of  Russia 


96  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

hemp.  In  every  other  respect,  the  plants  are  treated  as  if 
they  were  not  kept  over  a  year. 

"  The  method  of  dew-rotting  is  that  which  is  generally- 
practised  in  Kentucky.  The  lint  so  spread  is  not  so  good  for 
many  purposes,  and  especially  for  rigging  and  ships,  as  when 
the  plants  have  heen  rotted  by  immersion  in  water,  or,  as  it  is 
generally  termed,  water-rotted.  The  greater  value,  and 
consequently  higher  price  of  the  article,  prepared  in  the  lat- 
ter way,  has  induced  more  and  more  of  our  farmers  every 
year  to  adopt  it;  and  if  that  prejudice  were  subdued,  which 
every  American  production  unfortunately  encounters  when 
it  is  first  introduced  and  comes  in  contact  with  a  rival  Euro- 
pean commodity,  I  think  it  probable  that  in  a  few  years  we 
should  be  able  to  dispense  altogether  with  foreign  hemp. 
The  obstacles  which  prevent  the  general  practice  of  water- 
rotting  are,  the  want  of  water  at  the  best  season  for  the 
operation,  which  is  the  month  of  September;  a  repugnance 
to  the  change  of  an  old  habit;  and  a  persuasion,  which  has 
some  foundation,  that  handling  the  plants  after  their  submer- 
sion in  water  during  that  month  is  injurious  to  health.  The 
first  and  last  of  these  obstacles  would  be  removed  by  water- 
rotting  early  in  the  winter,  or  in  the  spring.  The  only  dif- 
ference in  the  operation,  performed  at  those  seasons  and  in  the 
month  of  September,  would  be,  that  the  plants  would  have  to 
remain  longer  in  soak  before  they  were  sufficiently  rotted. 

"The  plants  are  usually  spread  down  to  be  dew-rotted 
from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  middle  of  December.  A 
farmer  who  has  a  large  crop  on  hand  puts  them  down  at  dif- 
ferent times  for  his  convenience  in  handling  and  dressing 
them.  Autumnal  rotting  is  more  apt  to  give  the  lint  a  dark 
and  unsightly  color  than  winter  rotting.  The  best  ground  to 
expose  the  plants  upon  is  meadow  or  grass  land,  but  they 
are  not  unfrequently  spread  over  the  same  field  on  which 
they  grow.  The  length  of  time  they  ought  to  remain  ex- 
posed depends  upon  the  degree  of  moisture  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  weather  that  prevail.  In  a  very  wet  and  warm 
spell  five  or  six  weeks  may  be  long  enough.  Whether  they 
have  been  sufficiently  rotted  or  not  is  determined  by  experi- 
ment. A  handful  is  taken  and  broken  by  the  hand  or  ap- 
plied to  the  brake,  when  it  can  be  easily  ascertained,  by  the 
facility  with  which  the  lint  can  be  detached  from  the  stalk, 
if  it  be  properly  rotted.  If  the  plants  remain  on  the  ground 
too  long,  the  fibres  lose  some  of  their  strength,  though  a  few 
days  longer  than  necessary,  in  cold  weather,  will  not  do  any 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  97 

injury.  If  they  are  taken  up  too  soon,  that  is,  before  the 
hnt  can  be  easily  separated  from  the  woody  part  of  the  stalk, 
it  is  harsh,  and  the  process  of  breaking  is  difhcult  and  trou- 
blesome. Snow-rotting,  that  is,  when  the  plants,  being 
spread  out,  remain  long  enough  to  rot,  (which  however  re- 
quires a  greater  length  of  time,)  bleaches  the  lint,  improves 
the  quality,  and  makes  it  nearly  as  valuable  as  if  it  had  been 
water-rotted. 

"After  the  operation  of  rotting  is  performed,  the  plants 
are  again  collected  together,  put  in  shocks  or  stacks,  or, 
which  is  still  better,  put  under  a  shed  or  some  covering. 
When  it  is  designed  to  break  and  dress  them  immediately, 
they  are  frequently  set  up  against  some  neighbouring  fence. 
The  best  period  for  breaking  and  dressing  is  in  the  months  of 
February  and  JNIarch,  and  the  best  sort  of  weather,  frosty 
nights  and  clear  thawing  days.  The  brake  cannot  be  used 
advantageously  in  wet  or  moist  Aveather.  It  is  almost  in- 
variably used  in  this  state  out  of  doors  and  without  any 
cover;  and  to  assist  its  operation,  the  laborer  often  makes  a 
large  fire  near  it,  which  serves  the  double  purpose  of  drying 
the  plants  and  warming  himself.  It  could  not  be  used  in 
damp  weather  in  a  house  without  a  kiln  or  some  other  means 
of  drying  the  stalks. 

"The  brake  in  general  use  is  the  same  hand  brake  which 
was  originally  introduced  and  has  been  always  employed 
here,  resembling,  though  longer  than  the  common  flax 
brake.  It  is  so  well  known  as  to  render  a  particular  de- 
scription of  it,  perhaps,  unnecessary.  It  is  a  rough  contri- 
vance, set  upon  four  legs,  about  two  and  a  half  feet  high. 
The  brake  consists  of  two  jaws  with  slits  on  each,  the  lower 
iaw  fixed  and  immovable,  and  the  upper  one  movable,  so 
that  it  may  be  lifted  up  by  means  of  a  handle  inserted  into  a 
head  or  block  at  the  front  end  of  it.  The  lower  jaw  has 
three  slats  or  teeth,  made  of  tough  white  oak,  and  the  upper 
two,  arranged  approaching  to  about  two  inches  in  front,  and 
in  such  manner  that  the  slats  of  the  upper  jaw  play  between 
those  of  the  lower.  These  slats  are  about  six  or  seven  feet 
in  length,  six  inches  in  depth,  and  about  two  inches  in  thick- 
ness in  their  lower  edges;  they  are  placed  edgewise,  round- 
ed a  little  on  their  upper  edges,  which  are  sharper  than 
those  below.  The  laborer  takes  his  stand  by  the  side  of  the 
brake,  and  grasping  in  his  left  hand  as  many  of  the  stalks 
as  he  can  conveniently  hold,  with  his  right  hand  he  seizes 
the  handle  in  the  head  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  he  lifts,  and 
9 


98  THE  COMPLETE  FARMER 

throwing  the  handful  of  stalks  between  the  jaws,  repeatedly 
strikes  them  by  lifting  and  throwing  down  the  upper  jaw. 
These  succesive  strokes  break  the  woody  or  reedy  part  of 
the  stalks  into  small  pieces  or  shoes,  which  fail  off  during 
the  process.  He  assists  their  disengagement  by  striking  the 
handful  against  a  stake,  or  with  a  small  wooden  paddle,  un- 
til the  lint  or  bark  is  entirely  clean,  and  completely  separa- 
ted from  the  woody  particles. 

"  After  the  above  operation  is  performed,  the  hemp  may 
be  scutched,  to  soften  it,  and  to  strengthen  the  threads. 
That  process,  however,  is  not  thought  to  be  profitable,  and 
is  not  therefore  generally  performed  by  the  grower,  but  is 
left  to  the  manufacturer,  as  well  as  that  of  beating  and  hack- 
ling it.  Scutching  is  done  by  the  laborer  taking  in  his  left 
hand  a  handful  of  the  lint,  and  grasping  it  firmly,  then  lay- 
ing the  middle  of  it  upon  a  semicircular  notch  of  a  perpen- 
dicular board  of  the  scutching-frame,  and  striking  with  the 
edge  of  the  scutch  that  part  of  the  lint  which  hangs  down 
on  the  board.  After  giving  it  repeated  strokes,  he  shakes 
the  handful  of  lint,  replaces  it  on  a  notch,  and  continues 
to  strike  and  turn  all  parts  of  it,  until  it  is  sufliciently  cleans- 
ed, and  the  fibres  appear  to  be  even  and  straight. 

"  The  usual  daily  task  of  an  able-bodied  hand  at  the  brake 
is  eighty  pounds'  weight  ;  but  there  is  a  great  difference  not 
only  in  the  state  of  the  weather  and  the  condition  of  the 
stalks,  produced  by  the  greater  or  less  degree  in  which  they 
have  been  rotted,  but  in  the  dexterity  with  which  the  brake 
is  employed.  Some  hands  have  been  known  to  break  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds  per  day.  The 
laborer  ties  up  in  one  common  bundle  the  work  of  one  day, 
and  in  this  state  it  is  taken  to  market  and  sold.  From 
what  has  been  mentioned,  it  may  be  inferred,  as  the  fact  is, 
that  the  hemp  of  some  growers  is  in  a  much  better  condition 
than  that  of  others.  When  it  has  been  carelessly  handled 
or  not  sufliciently  cleansed,  a  deduction  is  made  from  the 
price  by  the  purchaser.  It  is  chiefly  bought  in  our  villages, 
and  manufactured  into  cotton  bagging,  bales,  and  other  kinds 
of  untarred  cordage.  The  price  is  not  uniform.  The  ex- 
tremes have  been  as  low  as  three  and  as  high  as  eight  dol- 
lars for  the  long  hundred,  the  customary  mode  of  selling  it. 
The  most  general  price  during  a  term  of  many  years  has 
been  from  four  to  five  dollars.  At  five  dollars  it  compen- 
sates well  the  labor  of  the  grower,  and  is  considered  more 
profitable  than  any  thing  else  the  farmer  has  cultivated." 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  99 

"The  quantity  of  net  hemp  produced  to  the  acre  is  from 
six  hundred  to  one  thousand  weight,  varying  according  to 
the  fertihty  and  preparation  of  the  soil  and  the  state  of  the 
season.  It  is  said  that  the  quantity  which  any  field  will 
produce  may  be  anticipated  by  the  average  height  of  the 
plants  throughout  the  field.  Thus,  if  the  plants  will  average 
eight  feet  in  height,  the  acre  will  yield  eight  hundred  weight 
of  hemp  ;  each  foot  in  height  corresponding  to  a  hundred 
weight  of  the  lint. 

"  Hemp  exhausts  the  soil  slowly,  if  at  all.  An  old  and 
successful  cultivator  told  me  that  he  had  taken  thirteen  or 
fourteen  successive  crops  from  the  same  field,  and  that  the 
last  was  the  best.  That  was,  however,  probably  owing  to  a 
concurrence  of  favorable  circumstances.  Nothing  cleanses 
and  prepares  the  earth  better  for  other  crops  (especially  for 
small  grain  or  grasses)  than  hemp.  It  eradicates  all  weeds, 
and  when  it  is  taken  off,  leaves  the  field  not  only  clean,  but 
smooth  and  even." 


FLAX.  The  following  observations  on  this  subject,  are 
extracted  from  "  Essays  on  Flax  Husbandry,  by  S.  W. 
Pomeroy,  Esq.,  First  Vice  President  of  the  Massachusetts 
Society  for  Promoting  Agriculture." 

Change  of  Seed.  Notwithstanding  it  is  an  opinion  well 
established  among  experienced  flax-growers  in  this  country, 
that  a  change  of  seed  is  advantageous,  it  is  apprehended 
that  they  are  not  aware  of  the  extent  of  the  benefit  to  be  de- 
rived by  selecting  seed  from  a  soil  or  climate  essentially  dif- 
ferent ;  and  it  may  be  owing  to  a  want  of  attention  in  this 
particular,  that  the  flax  crops  are  so  uncertain,  and  the  qual- 
ity inferior,  however  perfect  in  other  respects  the  system 
may  be  conducted.  Mr.  Young  observes,  that  "  foreign  flax- 
seed was  universally  used  in  Ireland,  when  it  could  be  ob- 
tained ;  otherwise  they  were  careful  to  procure  seed  which 
grew  upon  soil  of  an  opposite  quality  from  that  which  was  to 
be  sown  ;  that  American  seed  was  to  be  preferred,  and  pro- 
duced finer  flax  than  any  other."  Baltic  seed  produced 
more,  but  of  a  coarser  quality.  It  is  well  known  that  Amer- 
ican seed  always  bears  the  highest  price  in  the  Irish  market. 

Mr.  Pomeroy  cites  a  number  of  examples  to  show  the  im- 
portance attached  to  the  culture  of  flax  in  Europe,  "  and  to 
justify  the  conclusion,  that  in  this  country  a  continued,  judi- 
cious change  of  seed  will  be  indispensable  to  the  successful 


100  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

prosecution  of  flax  husbandry  ;  and  a  further  inference  may 
be  drawn,  that  experiments  on  various  soils,  with  seed  the 
growth  of  different  chmates,  are  requisite  to  direct  the  far- 
mer to  the  quarter  from  whence  his  best  seed  may  be  ob- 
tained. Here  opens  a  legitimate  field  for  our  numerous 
agricultural  societies  to  labor  in  :  on  their  exertions  the  far- 
mer must  depend  in  the  outset  ;  but  let  it  once  be  ascertain- 
ed that  Riga  seed  is  best  in  one  section,  Dutch  or  German 
in  others,  and  mercantile  interest,  if  not  patriotism,  will  dis- 
tribute them. 

"  Should  it  be  objected  to  importing  seed  on  account  of 
the  expense,  we  reply,  that  large  quantities  of  linseed  oil  are 
constantly  imported,  and  the  difference  of  price  between  our 
own  seed  and  that  imported  will  not  much  exceed  what  is 
now  paid  for  good  clean  seed  for  sowing  or  export,  and  that 
which  is  sold  for  crushing;  but  if  it  is  fitly  cents  per  bushel, 
or  more,  it  can  be  no  object,  compared  with  the  advantages 
that  may  be  reasonably  expected  to  result  ;  and  the  farmer 
need  not  be  told,  that  '  in  all  his  operations  parsimony  is 
never  so  ill  judged  as  when  it  is  exercised  in  the  selection  of 
his  seeds.'  It  is  not  pretended,  however,  but  that,  from  the 
great  variety  of  soil  and  climate  in  the  United  States,  the 
object  in  view  might  be  obtained  without  importation  ;  yet 
it  may  be  important  to  have  a  good  stock  to  begin  with, 
when  trials  could  be  instituted  with  its  produce.  At  any 
rate,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  individuals  will  embark  in 
such  a  course  of  experiments,  either  with  foreign  or  domes- 
tic seed,  unless  encouraged  by  agricultural  societies,  or 
other  public  bodies." 

In  speaking  of  the  soils  most  suitable  for  flax,  Mr.  Pome- 
roy  observes,  "The  soils  which  rank  first  in  this  country, 
are  the  flat  bottoms  that  are  covered  by  the  fall  and  spring 
floods,  which  subside  early  enough  in  the  season  to  get  in  a 
crop;  those  river  flats  on  the  second  banks  that  have  a  depth 
of  strong  alluvial  soil;  the  reclaimed  marshes  and  swamps, 
with  a  black  unctuous  soil,  not  too  peaty,  with  as  much  clay 
in  the  composition  as  will  permit  its  being  rendered  soon  dry 
and  mellow,  and  not  retain  water  on  or  near  the  surface  ;  if 
it  stands  two  feet  below,  so  much  the  better,  but  it  must  be 
well  guarded  by  ditches  and  dykes  against  sudden  freshets. 
Such  is  the  soil  of  the  province  of  Zealand,  where  more  flax 
is  raised,  and  of  better  quality,  than  in  any  other  part  of 
Holland.  The  next  in  estimation  are  the  strong  black  loams 
on  clay  or  hard  pan,   that  will  retain  moisture.      Yellow 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  101 

loams,  with  a  holding  subsoil,  may  be  rendered  suitable  for 
flax  by  proper  cultivation  ;  and  since  the  discovery  that 
plaster  of  Paris  is  an  excellent  manure  for  it,  a  crop  may  be 
obtained  with  much  more  certainty  on  lighter  land  than  for- 
merly. Perhaps  the  characteristic  of  best  garden  mould 
may  be  applied  to  a  flax  soil,  viz.,  retaining  sufficient  mois- 
ture, and  all  that  falls,  without  ever  being  saturated;  but  on 
any  soils  the  surface  should  be  completely  pulverized,  and 
never  be  worked  when  wet. 

"  No  dung  should  be  applied  to  the  land  when  the  flax  is 
sown,  but  may  be  put  on  bountifully  with  the  previous  crop. 
The  objection  is,  that  dung  forces  the  growth  so  rapidlv, 
that  the  plants  draw  weak,  have  a  thin  harl,  and  are  the 
more  liable  to  lodge.  Lime,  marl,  shells,  leached  ashes,  &c. 
do  not  produce  such  effects.  Top-dressings,  soon  after  the 
plants  appear,  of  plaster,  ashes,  soot,  Slc,  are  highly  bene- 
ficial, as  they  not  only  encourage  the  growth,  but  are  a  pro- 
tection against  worms,  which  sometimes  attack  young  plants, 
and  may  be  considered  the  only  enemy  they  have  except 
weeds. 

"  Salt  has  been  mentioned  by  the  late  Dr.  Elliot,  of  Con- 
necticut, as  an  excellent  manure  to  plough  in  with  flax,  at 
the  rate  of  five  bushels  to  the  acre;*  probably  more  would 
be  better.  Plaster  is  now  much  used  in  Duchess  county,  the 
best  cultivated  district  in  New  York,  as  a  manure  for  flax, 
on  which  its  good  efl^ects  are  as  apparent  as  on  corn. 

"  The  late  chancellor  Livingston  viewed  a  piece  of  flax 
on  the  20th  of  May,  1791,  belonging  to  a  poor  tenant,  very 
injudiciously  sown  on  a  dry  sandy  declivity ;  it  looked  so  ex- 
tremely sickly  that  the  tenant  thought  of  ploughing  it  up; 
the  chancellor  gave  him  three  bushels  of  plaster,  which  was 
sown  the  next  morning  before  the  dew  was  off",  and  had  the 
satisfaction  of  seeing  his  tenant  gather  more  ffax  from  his 
half  acre  in  an  uncommon  dry  season,  than  was  produced 
from  any  acre  in  the  neighbourhood. 

"  The  best  preparatory  crops  in  this  country  at  present 
appear  to  be  potatoes,  corn,  and  roots;  they  will  most  gen- 
erally repay  the  extra  manure,  and,  if  well  managed,  check 
the  production  of  weeds. 

"The  following  rotations  may  serve  as  an  outline  subject, 
to  be  varied,  and  hemp  or  other  crops  introduced,  as  circum- 
stances require,  viz.  : 

*  See  Elliot's  Essays  on  Field  Husbandry. 
9* 


102  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

"  No.  I.  Low,  cold,  or  reclaimed  Soils. 

1st  year,  Potatoes. 

2l1     do.     Flax,  with  seeds. 

3d     do.     Herd's  grass  and  red  top,  or  tall  meadow  oat  grass,  to  continae 
three  years  or  more,  and  tlie  course  repeated. 
"No.  II.  Strong  Uplands. 

1st  year.  Potatoes  or  corn. 

2d     do.      Corn  or  roots. 

3d    do.     Flax,  with  seed. 

4th    do.      Clover. 

5th    do.      Orchard  grass  or  herd's  grass,  to  continue  thi-ee  years  or  more. 
"  No.  III.  Light  Lands. 

1st  year.  Potatoes  or  corn. 

2d     do.      Com  or  roots. 

3d     do.     Flax,  with  seed. 

4th  do.  Clover,  to  be  mown  once,  tlie  after  growth  to  be  turned  in,  and 
rye  sown  thick  on  the  furrow,  which  may  be  soiled  or  fed  in  the  spring  by 
sheep  or  milch  cows,  and  ploughed  in  for, 

5th  year,  Corji. 

6th  "  do.   Spring  wheat  or  barley. 

7th  do.  Clover;  and  the  course  to  be  pursued  as  before ;  when  flax  will 
occupy  the  land  every  seventh  year.  In  all  cases,  except  when  hemp  is  sub- 
stituted, the  tillage  crops  should  receive  the  dung. 

"  If  the  land  is  ploughed  into  beds  or  convex  ridges,  like 
turnpike  roads,  about  a  rod  wide,  especially  if  low  and  level, 
the  crop  will  be  much  more  secure  from  injury  by  heavy 
rains,  and  the  grass  crops  will  be  better  if  it  remains  in  that 
form.  On  any  soils,  fall  ploughing  in  narrow  ridges  will 
facilitate  its  early  working  in  spring,  and  should  not  be  dis- 
pensed with." 

Mr.  Pomeroy  gives  the  following  directions  relative  to 
choice  of  seed. 

"  That  of  the  last  year's  growth  should  be  obtained  if  pos- 
sible. The  usual  marks  of  good  seed  are,  that  it  be  plump, 
oily,  and  heavy,  of  a  bright  brown  color,  sinking  readily  in 
the  water,  and  when  thrown  into  the  fire  to  crackle  and  blaze 
quick.  A  very  simple  method  of  trial  is,  to  sprinkle  it  thin 
between  two  pieces  of  wet  paper,  which  plunge  into  a  hot- 
bed or  dunghill,  and  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours  the  pro- 
portion that  will  vegetate  can  be  discerned,  which  should  be 
ascertained,  in  order  to  regulate  the  quantify  to  be  sown. 

"On  this  head  no  particular  directions  can  be  given,  as  it 
depends  on  the  various  qualities  of  soil,  goodness  of  seed, 
&c.  The  rule  for  sowing  small  grains  is  reversed;  flax  re- 
quiring  to  be  sown  thickest  on  rich  soil,  as  not  more  than 
one  stalk  is  wanted  from  a  plant.  In  England  and  Scotland 
never  less  than  two,  nor  more  than  three  bushels  to  the  acre 
are  sown.  Two  and  a  half  is  the  most  usual  portion.  In 
Flanders    and  Ireland  seldom   less  than  three  bushels  are 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  103 

sown,  except  when  seed  is  an  object.  Thick  sowing  is  to 
obtain  fine  flax.  In  this  country  it  will  be  important  at 
present  to  sow  at  such  a  rate  as  will  insure  good  crops  of 
each;  and  experience  only  can  determine  the  exact  point. 
It  is  probable  that  six  pecks  is  the  least,  and  two  bushels  the 
extent  that  should  be  sown  to  obtain  the  most  profitable  re- 
sults, till  the  demand  for  seed  is  considerably  lessened." 

Sowing.  Mr.  Pomeroy  recommends  sowing  as  early  as  it 
is  possible  to  prepare  the  ground  ;  says  that  it  is  important 
that  the  seeds  should  be  equally  distributed,  and  "  fortunate- 
ly what  has  long  been  a  desideratum  is  now  attained.  A 
machine  for  sowing  small  seeds  broad-cast  with  perfect  regu- 
larity has  lately  been  invented,  and  performs  to  great  satis- 
faction." * 

Weeding.  "Weeding  is  considered  in  Europe,  and  by 
good  husbandmen  in  this  country,  as  necessary  to  secure  a 
good  crop  of  flax,  which  is  a  very  tender  plant  when  young, 
and  more  easily  checked  in  its  progress  by  weeds  than  any 
other.  It  is  not  supposed  to  be  injured  by  the  clover  and 
grass  sown  with  it;  on  the  contrary,  the  Flemish  farmers 
think  them  beneficial,  by  protecting  the  tender  roots  from 
drought,  and  keeping  the  weeds  under.  It  should  be  care- 
fully wed  when  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high  ; 
they  are  not  then  injured  by  the  laborer  going  barefooted 
over  them." 

Pulling.  "  This  should  be  performed  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  begin  to  fall  and  the  stalks  show  a  bright  yellow 
color,  and  when  the  bolls  are  turned  a  little  brown.  The 
seed  will  continue  to  ripen  afterwards.  When  the  flax  is 
lodged,  it  should  be  pulled  immediately,  in  any  stage  of  its 
growth,  or  it  will  be  entirely  lost.  Great  care  is  requisite  in 
sorting  the  different  lengths,  and  keeping  them  separate  till 
after  the  flax  is  hackled,  or  much  waste  will  ensue  in  that 
process." 

Saving  Seed.  ''As  soon  as  the  flax  is  dry  enough  to  be 
put  under  cover,  it  should  be  rippled,  as  it  is  termed.  A 
comb,  resembling  the  head  of  a  rake,  but  with  teeth  longer 
and  nearer  together,  made  of  hickory  or  oak,  is  fastened  up- 

*  Bennett's  machine  for  sowing  broad-cast;  a  description  and  drawing  of 
which  are  given  in  the  "  Memoirs  of  the  Philadelphia  Agricultural  Society," 
Vol.  IV,  with  ample  testimony  of  its  usefulness.  It  is  pushed  forward  by  a 
rnah,  like  a  wlieel-barrow,  and  will  sow  more  than  one  acre  in  an  hour,  un- 
impeded by  wind  or  light  rain. 


104  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

on  a  block,  and  the  flax,  taken  in  parcels  no  longer  than  the 
hands  can  firmly  grasp,  is  drawn  through,  and  the  bolls  rip- 
pled off;  attention  to  sorting  at  the  same  time  should  be  con- 
tinued. The  bolls  are  to  be  riddled  and  winnowed  immedi- 
ately; spread  thin  on  a  clean  floor,  or  on  sheets,  in  the  sun, 
and  when  sufficiently  dry,  and  beginning  to  open,  threshed. 
By  this  method,  the  foul  seeds  are  completely  separated  with 
little  trouble,  and  good  clean  seed  is  ready  for  an  early 
market,  often  the  best,  without  the  use  of  expensive  ma- 
chinery to  make  it  so.  Here  the  operations  of  the  farmer 
ought  to  end ;  the  process  of  preparation  being  foreign  to 
and  unconnected  with  his  other  pursuits;  and  which  has  been 
the  greatest  objection  to  extensive  flax  culture.  Can  there 
be  a  reason  why  the  farmer  is  to  prepare  his  flax  more  than 
the  hides  of  his  cattle,  which  he  sends  to  the  tanner .-'  They 
are  both  chemical  processes;  and  to  dissolve  the  glutinous 
or  resinous  substances  by  which  the  fibres  are  attached  to 
the  stem,  without  impairing  their  strength,  is  perhaps  as 
critical,  and  requires  as  much  care  and  judgment,  as  to  ex- 
tract the  animal  juices  from  the  hides,  and  fill  the  pores  with 
tannin.  In  short,  the  flax  grower  and  flax  preparer  and 
dresser  should  be  distinct  professions.  They  are  said  to  be 
so  in  Flanders  and  Holland,  and  were  extensively  so  in 
Scotland,  where  the  farmer  sold  his  flax  on  the  ground,  or  in 
sheaves  at  his  barn  or  rick. 

"The  preparation  of  flax  by  steeping  is  very  general  in 
the  great  flax-growing  countries  in  Europe,  but  it  is  not 
quite  finished  in  the  water.  It  remains  spread  some  days  on 
the  grass,  which  is  necessary  to  render  it  soft,  and  give  that 
silvery  appearance  so  desirable.  The  destructive  process  of 
dew-rotting  is  most  commonly  practised  in  this  country,  and 
when  water  is  resorted  to,  it  is  at  an  improper  season  and 
the  process  imperfect  ;  which  is  the  cause  of  its  being  so 
harsh  and  brittle.  Perhaps  no  part  of  the  system  requires 
such  an  allowance  for  difference  of  climate.  In  the  humid 
atmosphere  of  Ireland,  it  is  not  very  material  when  it  is 
spread  ;  but  in  this  climate,  when  exposed  to  a  July  or 
August  sun,  every  drop  after  a  shower  becomes  a  burning- 
glass,  and  literally  scorches  the  fibres  :  besides,  such  a 
highly  putrid  fermentation  as  will  then  take  place  in  the 
water,  though  it  separates  the  harl  more  speedily,  not  only 
injures  it,  but  communicates  a  stain,  that  renders  the  process 
of  bleaching  much  more  tedious  and  expensive. 

"The  flax  should  not  be  put  into  the  water  till  about  the 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  105 

first  of  October,  and  remain  from  ten  to  fourteen  days,  ac- 
cording to  the  temperature  of  the  weather  ;  and  should  be 
taken  out  before  the  fibres  will  separate  freely,  spread  on 
the  grass,  when  the  frost  will  very  much  assist  the  operation; 
and  the  fiax  exhibits  a  gloss  and  softness  that  it  is  impossible 
to  give  it  otherwise.  The  following  method  of  preparing 
hemp,  will  apply  with  great  force  to  the  point  under  discus- 
sion. During  the  late  war,  an  experienced  ship-master  in 
Connecticut,  and  who  was  also  a  good  farmer,  raised  a  crop 
of  hemp.  As  soon  as  it  was  dry  enough  to  be  stowed  away, 
it  was  put  under  cover,  and  remained  till  October;  was  then 
put  into  clear  soft  water,  till  the  fibres  would  separate  with 
some  difficulty,  when  it  was  spread  on  the  grass;  the  frost 
completed  the  operation,  and  when  dry  it  was  immediately 
secured.  There  was  no  putrid  fermentation  to  deteriorate 
the  harl,  nor  was  it  mildewed  by  being  exposed  to  the  wea- 
ther, and  when  dressed  exhibited  that  fine  silver-green  hue 
by  which  the  Russian  hemp  is  distinguished;*  and  when 
worked  up,  was  pronounced  by  the  rope-makers  to  be  equal 
to  any  hemp  ever  imported  !  Here  is  a  lesson  for  our  west- 
ern brethren,  that  is  worth  more  to  them  than  mines  of  silver. 
Clear,  soft,  stagnant  water,  is  preferred  in  Europe.  A  canal 
forty  feet  long,  six  broad,  and  four  deep,  is  said  to  be  suffi- 
cient for  the  produce  of  an  acre  of  flax,  at  one  time.  It  should 
be  formed  on  a  clay  or  some  holding  soil,  where  the  water 
from  a  spring  or  brook  can  be  conducted  in  with  conveni- 
ence ;  the  expense  would  not  be  great,  and  on  most  farms 
suitable  sites  may  be  had.  May  not  boiling  or  steaming  be 
found  the  most  advantageous  process  of  preparing  flax  ? 
The  very  superior  sample  of  thread  exhibited  at  Brighton,  in 
1818,  for  which  Mrs.  Crowninshield,  of  Danvers,  received  a 
premium,  was  spun  from  flax  prepared  by  boiling.  It  ap- 
pears by  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Swedish  Academy,'  that  a 
method  was  practised  in  Sweden  of  preparing  flax  to  resem- 
ble cotton,  by  boiling  it  ten  hours  in  salt  water,  spreading  on 
the  grass,  and  frequently  watering,  by  which-  it  becomes  soft 
and  bleached.  Boiling  or  steaming  will  not  appear  very  for- 
midable or  expensive  when  we  examine  the  subject.  A  box 
twenty  feet  long,  six  feet  wide,  and  four  deep,  well  construct- 
ed of  stout  planks,  a  boiler,  from  which  a  large  tube  extends 
into  and  communicates  with  the  water  in  the  box,  will  boil 

♦  The  best  Riga  hemp  supplied  for  the  British  navy  is  prepared  by  steeping; 
during  which  it  is  shifted  three  times. 


106  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

the  produce  of  a  quarter  of  an  acre  in  a  day;  that  is,  if  we 
allow  double  the  room  to  boil  in  that  is  required  for  steeping. 
A  steam-pipe,  instead  of  the  tube,  and  having  the  top  of  the 
box  well  secured,  would  permit  the  process  of  steaming  to 
go  on.  It  is  probable  that  by  either  method,  spreading  on 
the  grass  will  be  necessary  to  obtain  soft  flax.  The  yarns 
of  which  the  sail  cloth  is  made  at  Paterson  are  all  steamed. 
The  navy  board  expressly  forbid  their  being  boiled  in  alka- 
line lye,  as  is  usual  in  most  manufactures  of  linen.  It  is 
from  this  precaution  that  their  canvas  has  the  pliable,  oily 
feeling,  which  so  much  recommends  it.  It  should  not  be 
lost  sight  of,  that  by  boiling  or  steaming,  much  time  and  ex- 
pense will  be  saved  in  bleaching. 

"  In  dressing,"  says  Mr.  Pomeroy,  "  our  climate  gives  a 
decided  advantage  over  Ireland,  Flanders,  or  the  north  of 
Europe,  where  flax  is  dried  on  hurdles,  over  a  peat  fire,  in 
ovens,  or  kilns,  requiring  great  care  in  regulating  the  heat, 
to  prevent  injury.  All  this  trouble  and  hazard  is  obviated  by 
our  dry  atmosphere  and  keen  northwest  winds.  Dr.  Deane 
estimated  the  expense  of  dressing  flax  by  hand  at  one  third 
of  the  product.  I  believe  the  present  price  does  not  vary 
much  from  his  estimate.  A  respectable  gentleman  from 
Duchess  county,  New  York,  informed  me  that  mills  or  ma- 
chines, impelled  by  water,  have  been  erected  there,  that 
break  and  completely  dress  the  flax  for  a  toll  of  one  tenth  ! 
It  is  said  one  or  more  of  them  are  in  operation  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  this  State.  These  mills  were  invented  in  Scot- 
land, and  are  now  said  to  be  brought  to  great  perfection. 
They  are  erected  in  all  directions  in  the  principal  flax  dis- 
tricts in  Ireland,  and  notwithstanding  the  low  price  and  limit- 
ed demand  for  labor,  are  resorted  to  by  the  poorer  classes 
of  people,  the  dressing  by  hand  being  mostly  abandoned. 
There  are  machines  in  England  that  dress  the  flax  immedi- 
ately from  the  field,  without  any  preparation  whatever.  An 
account  of  them  may  be  found  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  Journal.  It  appears  by  the  re- 
port of  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  that  in  1817 
they  were  in  successful  operation.  A  man  and  three  chil- 
dren impelled  the  machines,  and  dressed  sixty  pounds  a  day. 
Should  they  be  susceptible  of  the  application  of  water  or 
steam  power  in  any  degree  proportionate,  the  advantage  may 
be  incalculable;  but  in  the  present  inquiry,  we  place  these 
machines,  however  desirable,  entirely  out  of  the  question." 

Product.     "  It  is  not  uncommon  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  107 

land  to  obtain  eight  hundred  pounds  of  flax  from  an  acre  I 
Six  hundred  pounds  is  estimated,  in  some  districts,  as  an 
average;  but  it  should  be  observed  that  little,  if  any,  seed 
is  obtained.  The  average  crop  in  New  England,  as  far  as 
our  information  extends,  cannot  be  estimated  at  more  than 
two  hundred  pounds,  and  six  or  eight  bushels  of  seed.  (We 
do  not  include  the  rich  bottoms  on  the  Connecticut,  and 
some  other  rivers.)  Dr.  Deane  was  of  opinion,  that  four 
hundred  pounds  might  be  calculated  on  with  proper  manage- 
ment. 

"We  think  that  four  hundred  pounds  of  good  clean  flax, 
and  eight  or  ten  bushels  of  seed,  may  fairly  be  assumed  as 
a  medium  crop  on  favorable  soils,  where  the  culture  becomes 
such  an  object  as  to  make  other  farming  operations  subservi- 
ent to  it,  and  due  attention  is  paid  to  change  of  seed. 

"  Those  who  grow  flax  to  any  extent  are  of  opinion,  that 
the  seed,  at  the  price  it  has  been  for  some  years  past,  pays 
for  all  the  labor  bestowed  on  the  crop  to  the  time  the  flax  is 
ready  to  be  prepared  or  rotted." 


WHE.A.T.  To  raise  good  wheat  is  considered,  both  in 
America  and  Europe,  as  an  object  of  prime  consequence  to 
the  cultivator,  and  agricultural  writers  have  of  course  been 
very  voluminous  on  the  subject.  We  shall  select  and  con- 
dense some  of  their  remarks,  which  appear  to  us  of  the 
greatest  importance,  and  add  what  our  own  observation  and 
experience  has  suggested. 

Wheat  is  thought  to  be  the  most  useful  of  the  farinaceous 
plants;  and  as  the  bounty  of  Providence  has  generally  de- 
creed, that  those  things  which  are  most  useful  shall  be  most 
common,  wheat  accordingly  will  grow  in  almost  any  part  of 
the  globe.  It  thrives  not  only  in  temperate,  but  in  very  hot 
and  in  very  cold  regions:  in  Africa  and  Siberia,  as  well  as  in 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  It  requires  a  good 
loamy  soil,  not  too  light  nor  too  heavy.  The  "Memoirs  of 
the  New  York  Board  of  Agriculture,"  (Vol.  II.  p.  28,)  state, 
that  "  wheat  grows  best  on  land  which  contains  just  as  much 
clay  as  can  be  combined  with  it  without  subjecting  the  wheat 
to  be  frozen  out."  And  the  author  of  that  article,  Mr.  Amos 
Eaton,  observes,  "Since  it  is  the  clay  which  absorbs  and 
retains  most  of  the  water  injurious  in  wheat  soils,  I  adopted 
a  rule  for  the  consideration  of  farmers,  founded  on  that  prin- 
ciple, and  confirmed  by  all  the   observations  I   have   been 


108  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

enabled  to  make.  Rule. — Wash  a  little  of  the  soil  in  a 
tumbler  of  water,  and  observe  the  time  required  for  it  to  be- 
come clear.  If  the  time  required  exceeds  three  hours,  it 
may  be  considered  as  liable  to  be  injured  by  frost."  W.Van 
Dusen,  a  farmer  of  Rensellaer  county,  New  York,  says 
"  that  if  wheat  be  sowed  the  last  week  in  August,  on  clay 
soil,  it  will  generally  resist  the  etfect  of  frost  in  the  winter, 
and  of  insects  in  the  spring."  "  A  clay  soil,"  according  to 
the  same  work,  "  having  absorbed  a  large  proportion  of 
water,  becomes  cellular  as  the  water  freezes,  or  rises  up  in 
various  protuberances,  so  that  the  roots  of  the  wheat  plant 
become  disengaged  from  their  hold  in  the  soil.  It  is  very 
manifest,  that  if  wheat  be  sowed  so  early  that  each  plant  may 
have  time  to  extend  its  roots  into  the  soil,  its  chance  for 
retaining  its  hold  will  be  better."  We  believe  that  not  only 
clay,  but  lime,  chalk,  marl,  or  other  calcareous  substance, 
is  necessary  to  bring  wheat  to  perfection,  and  the  grounds 
of  our  belief  we  shall  exhibit  hereafter. 

"The  Complete  Farmer"  says,  that  "the  best  time  for 
sowing  wheat  is  about  the  beginning  of  September.  But  if 
the  earth  be  very  dry,  it  had  better  be  deferred  till  some 
showers  have  moistened  the  soil."  Mr.  Mortimer  says,  he 
has  known  wheat  to  be  so  musted  and  spoiled  by  laying  long 
in  the  ground  before  rain  came,  that  it  never  came  up  at  all; 
to  which  he  adds,  "  that  he  has  seen  very  good  crops  of 
wheat  from  seeds  sown  in  July."  We  should  apprehend, 
however,  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  feed  wheat  sown  so 
early,  in  order  to  prevent  its  going  to  seed  the  first  year,  or 
getting  too  far  advanced  in  its  growth  to  resist  the  frosts  of 
the  succeeding  winter.  Sowing  in  dry  ground  is  generally 
recommended  for  seeds  ;  but  wheat,  being  liable  to  be  smut- 
ty, is  commonly  prepared  by  steeping  in  brine  or  lime,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  steep  vegetation  commences  ;  and  if 
the  seed  in  this  state  is  placed  in  earth  which  is  and  contin- 
ues for  any  time  dry,  vegetation  is  checked  by  the  drought, 
which  kills  or  greatly  injures  the  seed. 

Early  sowing  requires  less  seed  than  late,  because  the 
plants  have  more  time,  and  are  more  apt  to  spread,  and 
throw  out  a  good  number  of  stalks.  More  seed  is  required 
for  poor  than  for  rich  lands,  and  rich  land  early  sowed  re- 
quires the  least  of  any.  Bordley's  "  Husbandry ".  says, 
"  The  climate  and  soil  of  America  may  be  believed  to  differ 
greatly  from  those  of  England,  respecting  the  growth  of 
some  particular  plants.     W^heat   sown  there,  two  to  three 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  109 

bushels  on  an  acre,  yields  great  crops.  Two  bushels  an  acre 
sown  in  Maryland  or  Pennsylvania  would  yield  straw  without 
grain.  In  Maryland  three  pecks  are  commonly  sown.  I 
never  had  better  crops  than  from  half  a  bushel  of  seed  wheat 
to  an  acre,  in  a  few  instances.  In  these  instances  the  ground 
was  perfectly  clean  and  fine,  after  many  ploughings  or  horse- 
hoeings  of  maize,  [Indian  corn,]  on  which  the  wheat  was 
sown  in  September,  whilst  the  maize  was  ripening.  It  was 
a  clay  loam,  highly  pulverized.  But  because  of  the  loss  of 
plants  at  other  times,  I  preferred  to  sow  three  pecks  an 
acre."  "  Grain  which  is  thin  sown,  says  the  Complete 
Farmer,  is  less  apt  to  lodge.  Every  one  must  have  observ- 
ed, that  in  places  where  foot-paths  are  made  through  wheat 
fields,  by  the  side  of  the  paths,  where  the  corn  is  thin,  and 
has  been  trodden  down  in  winter  and  spring,  the  plants  have 
stood  erect,  when  most  of  the  corn  in  the  same  field  has 
been  laid  flat  on  the  ground  ;  an  advantage  proceeding  from 
the  circumstance  of  the  stalks  having  more  room." 

"  The  Farmer's  Assistant  "  asserts,  that  "  the  time  for 
sowing  wheat  probably  depends  much  on  previous  habit. 
Thus  if  it  were  sown  a  number  of  successive  years  by  the 
middle  of  August,  and  then  the  time  of  sowing  were  chang- 
ed at  once  to  October,  the  crop  would  probably  be  much 
lighter  on  that  account  ;  yet  where  wheat  has  become  ha- 
bituated to  he  sown  late,  it  will  do  tolerably  well.  The  later 
it  is  sown,  however,  the  more  seed  is  requisite.  When  early 
sown,  a  bushel  to  the  acre  is  believed  to  be  sufiicient  ;  but 
when  sown  later,  a  bushel  and  a  half,  or  more,  may  be 
necessary."  The  estimate  of  seed,  however,  should  be 
formed,  not  so  much  from  the  capacity  of  any  particular 
measure,  as  from  the  number  of  grains  which  that  measure 
contains.  The  larger  and  fuller  the  seed  is,  the  greater 
quantity  by  measure  will  be  required  ;  the  smaller,  the  less 
quantity.  Much,  therefore,  must  be  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  fanner,  who  must  take  into  consideration  the  time  of 
sowing,  the  quality  and  preparation  of  the  soil,  as  well  as 
the  plumpness  or  the  shrivelled  state  of  the  seed  wheat. 

If  naked  summer  fallows  are  used  at  all,  they  may  as 
well  be  made  preparatory  to  a  crop  of  wheat.  It  may  some- 
times be  expedient  to  suspend,  for  one  season,  the  raising  of 
crops  of  any  sort  on  land  which  is  exhausted  or  greatly  in- 
fested with  weeds  ;  and  during  the  summer  and  autumn, 
plough  and  harrow  it  several  times,  and  thus  thoroughly 
subdue  it.  When  such  a  process  is  adopted,  wheat  is  gen- 
10 


no  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

erally  the  succeeding  crop.  The  custom  of  naked  fallow- 
ing, however,  is  not  much  approved  of  in  modern  husbandry, 
and  that  mode  of  preparing  for  wheat  is  rarely  adopted  by 
scientific  cultivators.  Sir  John  Sinclair  says,  "The  raising 
clean,  smothering,  green  crops,  and  feeding  stock  with  them 
upon  the  land,  is  not  only  much  more  profitable,  as  far  as 
relates  to  the  value  of  the  crop  substituted  in  lieu  of  a  fal- 
low, but  is  also  a  more  effectual  method  of  procuring  large 
crops  of  wheat,  or  any  other  crop,  which  may  succeed  the 
green  crop."  There  is  a  disadvantage  sometimes  attending 
fallows,  which  we  apprehend  may  be  more  detrimental  in 
our  climate  than  in  that  of  Great  Britain.  Land  which  is 
kept  in  a  light  and  pulverized  state  is  liable  to  be  washed 
away  by  violent  rains,  and  the  showers  of  our  summer  sea- 
son are  usually  more  plentiful,  and  fall  with  more  impetuosi- 
ty than  those  of  England,  although  the  mean  moisture  is 
less,  and  there  is  less  rain  falls  in  the  course  of  the  year  on 
this  than  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

In  modern  tillage,  wheat  more  usually  follows  clover  than 
any  other  crop  ;  and  Bordley's  "Husbandry  "  says,  "  clo- 
ver is  the  best  preparative  for  a  crop  of  wheat."  In  such 
case,  English  farmers,  and  indeed  all  others  who  woi-k  it 
right,  give  but  one  ploughing,  and  harrow  in  the  seed  by 
passing  the  harrow  twice  in  a  place  the  same  way  with  the 
furrows.  Mr.  Bordjey  directs,  that  the  operations  of  plough- 
ing, harrowing,  and  sowing,  should  immediately  follow  each 
other.  Mr.  Macro,  an  eminent  English  farmer,  says,  "  From 
upwards  of  twenty  years'  experience  I  am  of  opinion,  that 
the  best  way  of  sowing  clover  lands  with  wheat,  is  to  plough 
the  land  ten  or  fourlctn  days  before  you  sow  il,  that  the  land 
may  have  time  to  get  dry,  and  after  rain  to  make  it  dress 
well.  I  am  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  wheat  thriving  better 
on  lands  ivhich  have  been  ploughed  some  time,  than  it  does  on 
fresh  ploughed  lands  which  dress  as  well  or  better  ;  but  I 
have  often  tried  both  ways  on  the  same  lands,  and  always 
found  the  former  answer  best."  Mr.  Bordley,  in  attempting 
to  account  for  this  effect  says,  "  I  conjecture  that  the  clover 
plants  being  buried  and  the  wheat  sown  at  the  same  time, 
they  both  ferment  and  run  into  heat  in  the  same  period  ; 
ihe  germ  then  shoots,  and  the  root  is  extremely  delicate  and 
tender  for  some  days  ;  during  which,  the  buried  herbage 
obtains  its  highest  degree  of  heat  ;  which,  added  to  the  in- 
ternal heat  of  the  germ,  may,  though  only  slightly,  check 
and   a  little   injure    the  delicate    shoots  of  the  wheat.      In 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  Ill 

sprouting  barley  for  making  malt,  a  little  excess  of  heat  in  the 
bed  checks,  and  a  little  more  totally  stops  the  sprouting  or 
growth  of  the  roots.  Both  modes  give  crops  superior  to 
what  are  produced  on  fallow.  Farmers  may  well  try  both 
methods,  for  determining  which  to  prefer  ;  that  is,  as  well 
immediate  sowing,  on  ploughing  in  the  clover,  as  the  method 
of  sowing  not  till  ten  or  fourteen  days  after  having  ploughed 
in  the  clover  :  suppose  a  half  each  way." 

We  believe  that  wheat  would  flourish  better  if  it  were 
buried  deeper  than  it  generally  is  in  broad-cast  sowing.  Our 
opinion  is  founded  on  the  following  facts,  relating  to  the 
physiology  of  the  wheat  plant.  "  A  grain  of  wheat,  when 
put  into  the  ground  at  the  depth  of  three  inches,  undergoes 
the  following  transformations  :  as  soon  as  the  farinaceous 
nlatter  which  envelopes  the  frame  of  the  young  plant  con- 
tained within  it  is  softened  into  a  milky  state,  a  germ  is 
pushed  out,  and  at  the  bottom  of  that  germ  small  roots  soon 
follow.  The  roots  are  gathering  strength,  whilst  the  germ, 
by  the  aid  of  the  milky  fluid,  is  shooting  upwards  ;  and  when 
the  milk  is  exhausted,  the  roots  are  in  activity,  and  are  col- 
lecting nourishment  for  the  plant  from  the  soil  itself  This 
is  analogous  to  the  weaning  of  the  young  of  animals,  which 
are  not  abandoned  by  the  mother  till  they  can  provide  for 
themselves.  But  the  care  of  nature  does  not  end  here  ; 
when  the  germ  has  fairly  got  above  the  surface,  and  become 
a  plant,  a  set  of  upper  roots  are  thrown  out,  close  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  which  search  all  the  superficial  parts  of 
the  soil  with  the  same  activity  as  the  under  roots  search  the 
lower  parts  ;  and  that  part  of  the  germ  which  separates  the 
two  sets  of  roots  is  now  become  a  channel,  through  which 
the  lower  roots  supply  the  plant  with  the  nourishment  they 
have  collected.  What  an  admirable  contrivance  to  secure 
the  prosperity  of  the  plant  !  Two  distinct  sets  of  roots 
serve,  in  the  first  place,  to  fix  the  plant  firmly  in  the  ground, 
and  to  collect  nourishment  from  every  quarter.  The  upper 
roots  are  appositely  situated  to  receive  all  the  nourishment 
that  comes  naturally  from  the  atmosphere,  or  artificially  as 
manure,  to  the  surface;  and  serve  the  further  purpose  of  be- 
ing the  base  of  new  stems,  which  are  tillered  up,  and  so 
greatly  increase  the  productiveness  of  the  plant.  The  ex- 
cellence of  the  drill  system  in  grain  may  probably  be  per- 
ceived in  this  explanation  ;  for  in  broad-cast  sowing  the 
seeds  lie  very  near  to  the  surface,  and  in  this  situation  it  is 
not  only  more  exposed  to  accidents  arising  from  birds,  in- 


112  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

sects,  and  the  weather,  but  the  two  sets  of  roots  are  neces- 
sarily crowded  together,  so  as  ahiiost  to  become  indistinct  ; 
the  plant  is  less  iirm,  and  has  fewer  purveyors,  collecting 
food  for  it."  * 

Dr.  Deane  observed,  that  "  wheat  that  is  sowed  in  autumn, 
a  clover  ley  excepted,  should,  instead  of  harrowing,  be  cov- 
ered with  a  shallow  furrow,  and  the  surface  left  rough.  It 
will  be  less  in  danger  of  being  killed  by  the  frost  in  winter, 
and  less  injured  by  drying  winds  in  the  following  spring. 
The  furrows  should  be  left  without  harrowing;  for  the  more 
uneven  the  ground  is,  the  more  the  soil  will  be  pulverized 
and  mellowed  by  the  frost."  But  if  the  crop  which  succeeds 
the  wheat  crop  should  require  a  smooth  bottom,  the  land, 
after  sowing,  must  be  harrowed,  and  should  be  rolled.  Some 
husbandmen  advise,  when  wheat  is  sown  on  a  clover  ley,  to 
plough  in  the  clover  with  a  deep  furrow,  then  plough  in  the 
seed  wheat  with  a  shallow  furrow;  and  if  the  next  crop  in  the 
rotation  requires  a  level  bottom,  it  will  be  necessary  to  har- 
row and  roll  the  field  as  smooth  as  possible,  after  having 
ploughed  in  the  seed. 

The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  with  regard  to  the 
kind,  quality,  and  preparation  of  seed  wheat.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  wheat  ;  but  winter  wheat,  in  the  United 
States,  is  generally  distinguished  by  only  two  appellations, 
red  wheat  and  white  wheat,  of  which  the  latter  is  held  in 
highest  estimation. 

In  preparing  your  seed  wheat,  the  first  thing  to  be  attend- 
ed to  is,  to  clear  it  perfectly  from  every  injurious  foreign  sub- 
stance. "One  error  here  may  mar  our  whole  system,  and 
render  our  skill  productive  of  as  much  evil  as  good.  On 
poor  and  worn-out  land,  the  evil  of  sowing  a  mixture  of  im- 
pure seed  with  grain  or  grass  seed  would  be  great;  but  where 
the  ground  is  in  high  order  the  crop  is  more  injured;  the 
noxious  plants  take  firmer  hold,  and  are  more  difficult  to  be 
eradicated."!  Indeed,  it  would  be  better  for  a  farmer  to 
pick  over  his  seed  wheat  by  single  handfuls,  and  make  a  rid- 
dle of  his  fingers,  than  to  sow  cockle,  darnel,  tares,  wild 
turnip  seeds,  and  other  vegetable  nuisances,  which  are  as  in- 
trusive as  unwelcome,  as  tenacious  of  life  as  they  are  un- 


*  Mr.  Featherstonhaugh's  Essay  on  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Rural 
Economy. 

+  See  a  communication  by  O.  Fiske,  Esq.,  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  I. 
p.  222. 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  113 

worthy  of  existence.  The  first  preparation  therefore  should 
be  to  screen,  winnow,  and  riddle  the  grain  till  perfectly  freed 
from  these,  and  other  improper  ingredients.  When  this  is 
thoroughly  accomplished,  washing  and  steeping,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  smut,  should  meet  attention.  The  first 
step  in  the  processes  to  be  instituted  against  smut,  as  recom- 
mended by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  is  "to  run  the  grain  very  gently 
through  a  riddle,  when  not  only  the  smut  balls,  but  the  im- 
perfect grains,  and  the  seeds  of  weeds,  will  float,  and  may  be 
skimmed  off  at  pleasure."  The  same  author  enumerates,  as 
modes  by  which  smut  may  be  prevented,  1.  The  use  of  pure 
cold  water  and  lime.  2.  Boiling  water  and  lime.  3.  Water 
impregnated  with  salt.  4.  Urine  pickle.  5.  Lye  of  wood 
.ashes.  6.  A  solution  of  arsenic.  7.  A  solution  of  blue 
vitriol.  It  seems  that  almost  any  acrid,  corrosive,  or  poison- 
ous application  will  secure  a  clean  crop,  if  properly  used  for 
that  purpose. 

Mr.  Arthur  Young  sowed  fourteen  beds  with  the  same 
wheat  seed,  which  was  black  with  smut.  The  first  bed  was 
sown  with  this  wheat  without  washing,  and  had  three  hundred 
and  seventy-seven  smutty  kernels.  A  bed  sowed  with  seed 
washed  in  clean  water  produced  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  smutty  kernels;  washed  in  lime-water,  forty-three  do.; 
washed  in  lye  of  wood  ashes,  thirty-one  do.  ;  washed  in 
arsenic  and  salt  mixture,  twenty-eight  do. ;  steeped  in  lime- 
water  four  hours,  two  do.;  steeped  in  lye  four  hours,  three^ 
do.;  steeped  in  arsenic  four  hours,  one  do.  Again,  that 
which  was  steeped  in  lye,  as  before  mentioned,  twelve  hours, 
had  none;  and  that  which  was  steeped  in  the  same  kind  ot 
lye  twenty-four  hours  had  none;  that  also  which  was  steeped 
twenty-four  hours  in  lime-water  had  none  ;  that  steeped  in 
arsenic  twenty-four  hours  had  five. 

A  correspondent  of  "  The  New  England  Farmer,"  *  (who 
is,  We  believe,  a  practical  and  scientific  agriculturist,  and 
whose  statements  are  worthy  of  implicit  confidence,)  with 
the  signature  Berkshire,  in  giving  directions  for  preparing 
seed  wheat,  observes:  "  The  only  successful  course  is  to 
prepare  the  seed  about  ten  days  before  sowing-time.  This 
is  done  by  selecting  clean  and  plump  seed,  passing  it  through 
water  in  a  tub,  about  half  a  bushel  at  a  time,  and  washing  it 
and  skimming  off  the  matter  that  floats;  then  empty  it  into  a 
basket  to  drain,  then  lay  it  on  a  clean  floor  and  rake  in  two 

*  See  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  I.  p.  275. 

10* 


114  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

quarts  of  slacked  lime  and  one  quart  of  plaster  to  the  bushel, 
and  if  too  dry  sprinkle  on  water,  and  continue  to  stir  it 
until  all  is  covered  with  the  lime  and  plaster.  In  this  way 
you  may  proceed  until  you  have  prepared  your  whole  seed. 
Let  it  remain  in  a  heap  one  day,  then  spread  it  and  move 
it  daily,  until  it  becomes  perfectly  dry;  it  is  then  fit  to  sow, 
and  you  ma;  sow  it  if  the  land  should  happen  to  be  quite 
wet." 

We  shall  now  speak  of  the  liability  of  wheat  to  become 
winter-killed.  The  author  of  "Letters  of  Agricola"  states,  as 
an  objection  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat  in  Nova  Scotia,  "  its 
liability  to  be  thrown  out  in  the  spring,  and  thus  subjecting 
the  farmer  to  serious  inconveniences,  and  often  disappoint- 
ment of  a  crop.  Grasses  are  not  exempt  from  the  same 
hazard;  and  the  hopes  of  the  year  are  thus  blasted  by  a 
cause  which,  in  many  cases,  will  admit  of  remedy,  in  all,  of 
alleviation.  I  am  not  sure  but  sowing  the  wheat  seed  under 
furrow,  at  least  four  or  five  inches  deep,  in  September,  in 
order  that  it  may  extend  its  roots  and  take  a  firm  hold  of  the 
soil  before  the  approach  of  winter,  and  rolling  it  in  the 
spring  with  the  box  heavily  loaded,  would  obviate  the  evils 
of  our  climate,  and  enable  us  to  cultivate  that  grain  accord- 
ing to  the  improved  modes  of  England.  It  ought  to  be  re- 
collected that  even  there,  about  sixty  years  ago,  winter  wheat 
was  not  of  general  cultivation,  and  the  heaving  of  the  soil 
was  accounted  a  powerful  obstacle  to  its  success.  In  Scot- 
land, too,  during  the  same  period,  spring  wheat  almost  uni- 
versally prevailed;  and  her  northern  and  bleak  position  was 
thought  to  be  incapable  of  any  change  to  the  better,  and 
utterly  unfriendly  to  autumnal  semination.  The  zeal  and 
industry  of  British  farmers,  combined  with  their  skill,  have 
baffled  all  these  gloomy  predictions,  and  taught  us  at  once  to 
copy  the  example  of  our  sires,  and  not  to  despair  in  the  race 
of  improvement." 

A  method,  according  to  the  same  author,  made  use  of  in 
Norfolk,  England,  to  guard  wheat  against  the  changes  and 
inclemency  of  winter  and  spring,  is  to  adopt  the  following 
rotation:  "After  a  turnip  crop,  they  sow  barley  the  second 
year  with  clover  seeds;  the  third  year  they  cut  hay,  and 
plough  down  the  ley,  and  sow  their  winter  wheat  on  the 
matted  sod.  The  roots  of  the  grass  bind  the  soil,  and  pre- 
vent it  from  heaving,  which  is  much  akin  to  the  same  effect 
produced  by  the  tangled  and  bound  surface  of  our  new  and 
cleared  lands."    This  fact  may  suggest  another  inducement 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  115 

to  SOW  wheat  next  in  rotation  after  clover,  as  has  been  re- 
commended. 

It  is  well  kno\vTi  that  our  lands,  where  the  soil  is  at  all 
suitable,  will  produce  good  crops  of  wheat  when  first  cleared 
from  their  native  growth  of  wood;  but  after  having  been 
tilled  for  some  years,  they  generally  yield  wheat  with  diffi- 
culty, and  it  is  often  found  impossible  to  raise  it  by  any  of 
the  modes  commonly  adopted  for  wheat  culture.  In  most 
parts  of  Massachusetts,  and  in  some  parts  of  New  Hamp- 
shire and  Vermont,  the  farmers  scarcely  ever  attempt  to 
raise  wheat,  and  still  more  rarely  succeed  when  they  do 
attempt  it.  Yet,  we  believe,  wheat  was  a  common  and  pro- 
fitable crop  in  those  places  in  the  early  period  of  their  settle- 
ment. In  process  of  time,  however,  the  land  became  ex- 
hausted of  its  wheat-bearing  faculty,  and  our  farmers  were 
forced  nearly  to  forego  its  cultivation.  The  same  variations 
and  appearances  have  likewise  been  observed  in  Europe. 
Wheat  countries,  by  continued  cultivation,  have  become 
almost  incapable  of  yielding  wheat.  The  cause  and  remedy 
of  this  partial  barrenness,  this  falling  off,  with  regard  to  par- 
ticular plants,  was  alike  involved  in  obscurity,  till  modern 
discoveries  in  chemistry  threw  light  on  the  subject.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  texture  of  every  soil  is  defective  unless 
there  is  a  mixture  of  three  kinds  of  earth,  viz.,  clay,  sand, 
and  lime;  and  that  lime,  in  some  of  its  combinations,  exists 
in  wheat,  both  in  the  straw  and  kernel.  In  some  soils,  fer- 
tile in  other  respects,  lime  may  either  have  no  existence,  or 
be  found  in  very  minute  portions,  and  be  soon  exhausted. 
If  lime  be  a  necessary  constituent  of  wheat,  and  is  not  in  the 
soil  where  we  attempt  to  raise  wheat,  it  must  be  supplied  by 
art,  or  wheat  will  not  grow.  Or  if  native  lime  exists  in  the 
soil  in  small  quantities,  the  land  may  bear  wheat  till  the  lime 
is  exhausted,  and  then  become  incapable  of  producing  that 
plant,  till  a  fresh  supply  of  lime,  marl,  pulverized  bones,  or 
some  other  calcareous  substance,  is  added.  Mr.  Young 
says,  ("Letters  of  Agricola,"  p.  299,)  "  It  cannot  be  de- 
nied, that  since  the  plentiful  use  of  lime  has  been  adopted, 
lands  in  Europe  will  produce  wheat  which  otherwise  were 
incapable  of  bearing  it;"  and  quotes  several  instances  in 
proof  of  this  assertion.  Dr.  Anderson  likewise  gives  an  ac- 
count of  a  field  which  had  a  top-dressing  of  lime  for  the  pur- 
pose of  raising  wheat,  but  the  lime,  by  accident,  was  not 
applied  to  a  small  patch  of  the  field,  and  in  that  patch  there 
was  no  crop,  while  every  part  of  the  field  to  which  the  lime 


116  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

•was  applied  produced  wheat  luxuriantly.  It  would  be  easy 
to  adduce  many  more  instances  to  prove  that  lime,  in  Great 
Britain,  is  considered  not  only  useful,  but  indispensable  for 
the  production  of  wheat.  A  British  farmer,  we  believe, 
rarely  undertakes  to  raise  wheat  without  the  use  of  lime,  and 
an  American  farmer  as  rarely  undertakes  to  raise  it  with  the 
use  of  that  substance  for  manure. 

If  the  foregoing  premises  are  correct,  it  would  seem  not 
impossible,  and  indeed  scarcely  improbable,  that  by  the  judi- 
cious use  of  lime,  or  other  calcareous  substances,  wheat  may 
be  as  well  raised  in  New  England  as  in  the  western  States. 
The  subject  is  certainly  of  very  great  importance,  and  de- 
serves repeated  experiments. 

It  will  be  objected  against  the  use  of  lime,  1st,  that  it  is 
too  dear  to  be  used  for  manure;  and,  2dly,  that  our  farmers 
do  not  know  how  to  apply  it,  and,  as  it  is  a  powerful  sub- 
stance, it  may  do  more  harm  than  good,  unless  in  the  hands 
of  a  chemist,  or  one  practically  acquainted  with  its  operation. 
With  regard  to  the  dearness  of  lime,  we  are  informed  that 
there  is  no  want  of  limestone  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
United  States;  and  probably,  by  proper  search,  many  more 
limestone  quarries  might  be  discovered  in  New  England 
than  are  at  present  known.  And  the  price  of  lime  would, 
doubtless,  be  diminished  by  increasing  the  demand,  because 
if  great  quantities  were  wanted  for  agricultural  purposes,  a 
greater  number  of  persons  would  find  their  account  in  making 
a  business  of  manufacturing  it  ;  improvements  would  be  in- 
troduced in  the  processes  connected  with  its  manufacture, 
and  of  course  it  would  be  afforded  cheaper.  Besides,  small 
quantities  would  alone  be  needed  for  the  purpose  of  furnish- 
ing that  calcareous  matter  which  nature  inclines  to  incorpo- 
rate into  the  substance  of  wheat,  clover,  &c.,  and  probably  a 
top-dressing  of  two  or  three  bushels  to  the  acre  would  be  ot 
essential  benefit,  though  doubtless  more  would,  generally,  be 
preferable.  Mr.  Young  says  "  a  small  quantity  of  quick- 
lime, scattered  on  the  surface  of  lands  newly  cleared,  will 
prove  highly  beneficial  during  the  whole  length  of  time  they 
remain  untilled.  Thirty  bushels  of  shells  [lime  fresh  from 
the  kiln]  to  the  acre,  slacked  into  a  fine  powder,  will  produce 
the  most  surprising  effects,  if  not  on  the  first  crop  of  wheat, 
at  all  events,  on  the  verdure,  luxuriance,  and  quality  of  the 
future  pasture."*     A  writer  in  the  "  Museum  Rusticum,"  an 

*  Letters  of  Agricola. 


Ai\U  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  117 

English  work,  says,  "  that  he  sows  his  wheat  without  laying 
on  any  manure,  but,  early  in  the  spring,  gives  a  top-dressing 
of  twenty  bushels  of  lime,  pulverized,  and  mixed  intimately 
with  forty  bushels  of  sand;  and  if  the  weather  be  dry,  he 
doubles  the  quantity  of  sand."  We  are  disposed  to  believe 
that  at  least  lime  enough  for  light  top-dressings  might  be 
easily  procured  by  almost  every  cultivator  in  the  Union. 
And  such  light  dressings,  if  our  theory  is  correct,  would  be 
all  that  is  indispensable  to  the  production  of  wheat. 

With  regard  to  the  mode  of  applying  lime,  nothing  cars 
be  more  simple.  It  should  be  evenly  spread,  after  being 
water-slacked,  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  not  ploughed 
in,  or,  if  ploughed  in,  it  should  be  with  a  very  shallow  fur- 
row, because  its  tendency  is  to  sink  below  the  reach  of  culti- 
vation. If  used  in  a  quick  or  burning  state,  it  will  be  safest 
to  mix  it  with  about  double  its  quantity  of  sand,  loam,  clay, 
or  some  other  material.  The  additional  material  may  be 
made  to  correspond  with  the  wants  of  the  soil  to  which  it  is 
applied.  Thus,  if  the  soil  has  too  much  clay,  mix  sand  with 
your  lime  ;  if  too  much  sand,  mix  finely  pulverized  clay, 
&c. 

It  is  said  that  British  farmers  apply  lime  in  great  quanti- 
ties directly  from  the  kiln  in  its  most  caustic  state,  even  to 
land  which  is  replete  with  putrescent  or  vegetable  manure, 
and  run  the  risk  of  consuming  or  wasting  the  manure  by  its 
corrosive  qualities.  But  the  soil  of  Great  Britain  is  generally 
wetter  than  ours,  and  of  course  the  lime  sooner  becomes 
mild.  Besides,  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  strength  of 
lime,  and  that  of  the  United  States  may  be,  generally  speak- 
ing, stronger  than  the  English  lime.  In  short,  we  should 
advise  every  farmer  to  use  quicklime  as  manure,  in  small 
quantities  at  first,  mixed  with  a  large  proportion  of  earth,  or 
some  other  substance,  to  dilute  it,  and  thus  take  care  not  to 
burn  his  seed,  his  fingerg,  or  his  growing  vegetables.  And 
with  these  precautions,  we  would  make  use  of  it  for  wheat 
as  a  top-dressing  in  spring.  We  would  likewise  try  it  mixed 
with  wood  ashes,  together  with  earth  ;  for  we  have  been 
told  by  a  practical  farmer,  that  ashes  and  lime  form  a  union 
much  more  valuable  than  either  separate. 

In  an  article  on  the  Culture  of  Winter  Wheat,  by  R.  H. 
Gardiner,  Esq.,  of  Gardiner,  Me.,  the  writer  observes, 
"  The  cultivation  of  winter  wheat  is  preferable  to  that  of 
summer  on  a  great  variety  of  accounts.  It  is  sown  and  the 
ground  prepared  in  a  season  of  much  greater  leisure.     One 


118  THE   COMPLETE   l-ARMER 

of  the  great  disadvantages  of  our  northern  climate  is  the 
extreme  shortness  of  our  spring,  so  that  it  is  difficult  for  our 
farmers  to  complete  the  work  which  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  be  done,  after  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  and  before 
the  season  of  planting  is  over.  If,  therefore,  any  work,  as 
the  sowing  of  wheat,  can  be  advantageously  postponed  till 
the  autumn,  it  is  of  great  importance.  The  winter  wheat  is 
le,ss  liable  to  injury  from  insects  than  the  summer;  mine  has 
never  suffered  from  them.  It  affords  good  fall  feed,  and  the 
larger  quantity  of  roots  and  stubble  to  be  ploughed  in  makes 
the  land  in  a  better  state  for  the  next  crop.  The  grain  is 
heavier,  and  the  same  number  of  pounds  will  yield  a  larger 
quantify  of  flour,  and  of  a  much  superior  quality.  From  my 
experience,  I  should  recommend  that  winter  wheat  should 
not  be  sowed  later  than  the  middle  of  September,  that  the 
soil  on  which  it  is  sowed  should  be  of  a  light  loam,  and  that 
about  five  pecks  of  seed  be  sown  to  the  acre.  I  have  also 
found  the  use  of  plaster  on  wheat  advantageous,  as  also  roll- 
ing the  wheat,  after  it  is  well  up." 

To  procure  new  varieties  of  wheats,  (says  Mr.  Loudon,) 
the  ordinary  mode  is  to  select  from  a  field  a  spike  or  spikes 
from  the  same  stalk  which  has  the  qualities  sought  for,  such 
as  larger  grains,  thinner  chaff,  stiffer  straw,  a  tendency  to 
earliness  or  lateness,  &c. ;  and  picking  out  the  best  grains 
from  such  ear  or  ears,  to  sow  them  in  suitable  soil,  in  an 
open,  airy  part  of  a  garden.  When  the  produce  is  ripe,  se- 
lect the  best  ears,  and  from  these  the  best  grains,  and  sow 
these;  and  so  on,  till  a  bushel  or  more  is  obtained,  which 
may  then  be  sown  in  a  field  apart  from  any  other  wheat.  In 
this  way  many  of  the  varieties  of  the  common  winter  wheat 
have  been  obtained.*  Other  varieties  have  assumed  their 
distinctive  marks  from  having  been  long  cultivated  on  the 
same  soil  and  climate,  and  take  local  names,  as  the  Hert- 
fordshire red,  Essex  white,  &c. 

Marshall  (Yorkshire)  mentions  a  case  in  which  a  man  of 
accurate  observation,  having  in  a  piece  of  wheat  perceived  a 
plant  of  uncommon  strength  and  luxuriance,  diffusing  its 
branches  on  every  side,  marked  it,  at  harvest  gathered  it 
separately,  and  thus  introduced  a  new  and  superior  variety. 

Jonathan  Townsend,  of  Andover,  Conn,  gives  the  follow- 
ing directions  for  obtaining  good  crops  of  wheat,  preceded 
by  Indian  corn  :   "  Select  a  piece  of  ground  suitable  for  In- 

*  See  also  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  X.  p.  309. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  119 

dian  corn  and  winter  grain  ;  spread  on  evenly  twenty  com- 
mon cart  loads  or  upwards  of  stable  and  yard  manure  to  the 
acre:  plough  it  in  just  three  inches  deep  and  no  more;  har- 
row it  lengthwise  of  the  furrow;  cross  mark  for  the  rows,  three 
and  a  half  feet  for  the  small,  or  four  feet  for  the  large  kind  of 
corn;  let  the  corn  be  properly  tended,  by  keeping  the  ground 
loose  with  the  plough  and  hoe,  and  free  from  weeds;  and  if 
the  season  is  not  very  unpropitious,  you  may  calculate  on  a 
large  crop.  But  if  the  ground  is  hard  and  stony,  so  that  it 
cannot  be  ploughed  shallow  as  above  mentioned,  then  plough 
as  shallow  as  possible,  and  spread  on  the  manure  afterwards 
and  harrow  it  in,  and  proceed  as  above  directed;  the  crop 
will  not  probably  disappoint  your  expectations.  As  soon  as 
the  corn  has  become  ripe,  or  too  hard  to  roast,  and  if  possi- 
ble before  it  is  touched  with  frost,  cut  it  up,  bind  and  carry 
it  out  of  the  field,  and  shock  it  in  the  usual  way.  If  you 
have  drawn  the  earth  around  your  corn  into  hills,  (which  I 
would  advise  never  to  do  in  any  case,)  harrow  the  hills  down 
with  a  heavy  harrow,  plough  three  inches  deep,  and  spread 
on  evenly  four  or  five  loads  of  well  rotted  manure,*  and  sow 
three  pecks  of  good  clear  wheat  to  the  acre,  and  plough  it 
in  with  a  light  horse  plough;  and  unless  something  disastrous 
happens,  the  summer  following  your  garner  may  be  filled 
with  the  finest  wheat.  The  same  directions  will  apply  to 
ground  planted  with  potatoes.  I  would  insure  a  crop  sown 
on  ground  thus  managed  for  ten  per  cent,  less  than  if  sown 
on  a  summer  fallow  in  the  ordinary  way." 

Wheat  is  subject  to  several  diseases;  the  most  common 
and  generally  injurious  are  mildew  or  rust  and  smut.  Some 
writers  assert,  that  mildew  is  caused  by  a  minute  parasitic 
fungus  or  mushroom,  which  fastens  on  the  leaves  and  glumes 
or  stems  of  the  living  plant.  The  roots  of  this  fungus,  in- 
tercepting the  sap  intended  by  nature  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  grain,  render  it  lean  and  shrivelled,  rob  it  of  its  flour, 
and  the  straw  becomes  black  and  rotten,  unfit  for  fodder. 

Mr.  Butler,  in  "The  Farmer's  JManual,"  says,  in  sub- 
stance, that  the  rust  on  wheat  commences  in  July,  at  the 
time  of  the  filling  of  the  kernel  in  the  ear,  when  a  combina- 
tion of  heat  and  moisture  bring    into  action  rich  manures, 


*  It  has  generally  been  advised  not  to  apply  manure  to  a  wheat  crop  the 
same  year  tlie  wheat  is  sown,  but  the  small  quantity  mentioned  above  would, 
perhaps,  serve  as  a  top-dressing,  without  giving  too  great  luxuriance  to  the 
straw,  and  cause  it  to  be  mildewed  or  blasted. 


120  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

and  forces  into  the  straw,  which  has  now  finished  its  growth, 
more  juices  than  the  kernel  can  take  up,  being  already  filled 
out.  These  juices  burst  the  straw,  or  pass  through  the 
natural  pores  of  the  stalk.  When  these  juices  come  to  the 
air,  they  lose  by  evaporation  their  thinner  parts,  become 
glutinous,  and  form  the  matter  called  rust  or  mildew. 

Willich's  "Encyclopedia"  observes,  "Common  wheat 
is  more  subject  to  this  destructive  disease  than  that  which  is 
bearded,  especially  if  the  land  has  been  newly  dunged.'"  Oth- 
er writers,  likewise,  attribute  this  disorder  to  the  application 
of  fresh  dung,  in  too  great  quantity. 

The  remedies  against  rust  or  mildew,  according  to  Sir  John 
Sinclair,  are  as  follows  :  1.  Cultivating  hardy  sorts  of  wheat. 
2.  Early  sowing.  3.  Raising  early  varieties.  4.  Thick 
sowing.  5.  Changes  of  seed.  6.  Consolidating  the  soil. 
7.  Using  saline  manures.  8.  Improving  the  course  of  crops; 
and,  9.  Extirpating  all  plants  that  are  receptacles  of  rust. 
10.  Protecting  the  wheat  plants  by  rye,  tares,  and  other 
crops. 

Very  able  and  instructive  Essays  on  the  Culture  of  Wheat, 
by  the  Rev.  Henry  Colman,  were  pubUshed  in  "The  New 
England  Farmer,"  Vol.  XII.  pages  25,  49,  57,  65,  73.  Mr. 
Colman  gives  in  detail  many  experiments,  some  of  which 
were  made  by  himself  He  states,  in  substance,  that  he 
sowed  three  acres  of  winter  wheat  on  some  of  the  best 
land  in  the  Deerfield  (Mass.)  meadows.  The  land  was  green 
sward,  turned  up  in  the  fall,  rolled  and  harrowed,  and  the 
seed  soaked  in  brine,  limed,  and  sowed  at  the  rate  of  two 
and  a  half  bushels  to  the  acre,  on  the  27th  of  October.  One 
half  the  field  was  abundantly  manured,  and  to  the  other  no 
manure  was  applied.  The  seed  came  up  finely,  and  nothing 
could  exceed  the  beauty  and  luxuriance  of  the  growth,  a 
greater  part  of  the  field  averaging  more  than  five  feet  in 
height. 

"Above  half  the  field,"  says  Mr.  Colman,  "including 
an  equal  portion  of  the  manured  and  that  not  manured,  was 
passed  over  twice  in  the  spring,  after  the  grain  had  got  to 
be  six  inches  in  height,  with  a  light  harrow  drawn  by  one 
yoke  of  oxen  ;  and  three  weeks  after  was  subjected  to  the 
same  process,  according  to  the  method  practised  in  France. 
The  efl^ect  of  this  was  to  destroy  very  (e\v  of  the  plants,  and 
to  render  the  growth  of  what  remained  much  more  luxuri- 
ant, producing  such  an  increase  of  the  stem  and  such  an 
extension  of  the  heads,  as  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  most 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  121 

casual  observer,  and  to  induce  several  persons,  who  were 
ignorant  of  the  process  to  which  it  had  been  subjected,  to 
inquire  for  the  cause  of  the  difference  in  the  two  parts  of 
the  field,  and  to  ask  if  a  different  kind  of  seed  had  been  used. 
After  all,  however,  to  my  extreme  disappointment,  the  whole 
field  has  been  blasted,  and  I  shall  hardly  get  back  the 
amount  of  the  seed  sown,  and  that  in  a  small  shrivelled  grain. 
The  crop  is  housed,  but  will  scarcely  repay  the  expense  of 
threshing.  Now  that  this  result  was  not  owing  to  the  use 
of  stable  dung  is  obvious,  because  none  was  used  ;  and  in 
that  part  of  the  field  where  the  blight  appeared  to  com- 
mence, and  to  make  most  rapid  progress,  no  manure  what- 
ever was  used.  It  was  not  owing  to  the  want  of  the  spe- 
cific property  in  the  soil,  as  far  as  that  is  to  be  found  in 
lime  and  slaughter-house  manure,  for  both  of  these  were 
employed  ;  the  seed  was  limed,  and  the  above  manure  co- 
piously applied.  It  is  not  to  be  attributed  to  the  luxuriance 
of  the  crop,  for  several  pieces,  as  I  learn  in  my  neighbour- 
hood, have  suffered  equally  and  from  the  same  cause,  when 
the  cultivation  was  by  no  means  so  high.  It  is  not  a  time  of 
universal  failure,  for  a  good  deal  in  this  vicinity  is  perfectly 
healthy  and  sound,  and  I  have  already  reaped  on  the  same 
farm  a  small  piece  of  wheat,  say  half  an  acre,  on  higher 
land,  which  was  healthy  and  fair,  though  from  the  condition 
of  the  land  it  gave  but  a  small  product.  This,  however, 
though  sowed  at  the  same  time,  was  ready  for  the  sickle 
more  than  a  week  sooner  than  the  other,  from  the  drier  and 
poorer  quality  of  the  soil.  What  then  was  the  cause  of  the 
Ijlast  ?  I  will  not  assume  to  decide  this  question,  but  as  far 
as  appears,  it  was  atmospheric,  occurring  at  a  particular 
state  of  the  plant,  which  rendered  it  peculiarly  liable  to 
blight.  As  the  wheat  was  fiUing  fast,  we  had  frequent 
showers,  and  much  of  what  w'e  Yankees  call  nni^gy  weath- 
er ;  one  day  in  particular  the  air  was  sultry,  the  heSt  in- 
tense, and  the  showers  frequent,  with  intervals  of  sunshine, 
and  the  earth  was  steaming  most  profusely.  An  intelligent 
farmer  in  my  employ,  accustomed  to  the  cultivation  of  this 
grain  in  one  of  the  best  wheat  districts  in  New  York,  re- 
marked to  me,  that  this  was  very  severe  weather  for  my 
wheat,  and  that  he  feared  I  should  lose  it.  The  rust  in  fact 
appeared  for  the  first  time  the  next  day,  and  rapidly  extend- 
ed itself  over  the  whole  field,  presenting  no  difference  either 
in  the  manured  or  in  the  parts  of  the  field  not  manured,  and 
of  course  less  luxuriant.  Had  my  wheat  been  sown  earlier, 
11 


122  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

SO  as  to  have  been  farther  advanced,  it  would  probably  have 
escaped  the  blight  ;  had  it  been  sown  later,  so  as  not  to 
have  been  so  far  advanced  as  it  was,  perhaps  I  should  have 
been  as  fortunate  ;  but  the  occurrence  of  such  a  peculiar 
state  of  the  atmosphere  being  wholly  accidental,  at  least  as 
far  as  we  are  concerned,  it  is  impossible  to  make  any  cer- 
tain calculation  about  it." 

Mr.  Colman  quotes  authorities,  to  show  that  wet  and  warm 
weather,  when  the  kernel  was  beginning  to  form,  had  usual- 
ly been  accompanied  with  mildew  in  wheat,  in  Great  Brit- 
ain. He  states,  in  substance,  that  the  crops  of  wheat,  both 
summer  and  winter,  have  been  in  this  vicinity  good  and 
abundant,  and  on  an  average  full  twenty  bushels  to  the  acre. 
In  Northfield,  Mass.  the  crops  of  1833  rated  as  high  as 
seven  thousand  bushels. 

Mr.  Colman  states,  that  William  Pomroy,  of  Northfield, 
from  twenty-three  acres  of  old  meadow  land,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Connecticut,  harvested  more  than  five  hundred  bush- 
els of  winter  and  spring  wheat,  "of  as  fine  a  sample  as 
ever  floated  on  the  Erie  canal.  A  part  of  it  was  reckoned 
to  yield  full  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre."  Most  of  this 
wheat  was  sowed  very  early,  and  was  too  forward  to  be  in- 
jured by  the  sultry  and  foggy  weather  of  July.  One  piece, 
however,  was  blighted  in  consequence  of  late  sowing. 

Mr.  Colman  says:  "Early  sowing,  from  the  best  obser- 
vation I  have  made  of  the  wheat  crops  which  have  come 
under  my  notice,  from  the  united  and  decided  opinion  of  the 
British  wheat  growers,  and  from  many  American  authori- 
ties, is  to  be  strongly  advised.  The  reason  is  obvious  :  the 
wheat  crop  should  be  as  far  advanced  in  the  spring  as  possi- 
ble, that  it  may  perfect  its  seed  before  the  hot  and  sultry 
weather  usual  in  July." 

Sir  John  Sinclair  says,  "  If  a  field  be  evidently  affected 
[with "mildew]  and  the  progress  of  vegetation  stopped,  the 
only  way  to  preserve  the  straw  and  the  grain,  if  any  has 
been  formed,  from  being  entirely  lost,  is  to  cut  it  down  im- 
mediately, even  though  the  crop  should  not  be  ripe.  The 
straw  is  thus  preserved,  either  for  food  or  litter,  and  it  is 
maintained  that  any  nourishment  in  the  stem  will  pass  into 
and  feed  the  grain,  and  make  a  greater  return  than  could 
well  be  expected." 

Bi.ACK  Sea  Wheat.  Payson  Williams,  Esq.,  of  Fitch- 
burg,  Massachusetts,  has  introduced  into  this  country  a  new 
kind  of  wheat  with  the  above  appellation,  which  he  has  thus 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  123 

described  in  a  communication  published  in  "  The  Northern 
Farmer." 

"  The  wheat  I  not  only  consider  as  a  remarkable  crop  in 
quantity,  fifty-five  bushels  and  three  quarters,  (it  being 
spring  wheat,)  but  very  excellent  in  quality.  Its  history,  so 
far  as  I  am  able,  shall  be  given.  Three  years  since,  my 
brother.  Captain  Stephen  Williams,  brought  me  one  bushel 
from  Smyrna,  which  he  obtained  from  a  ship  while  discharg- 
ing a  cargo  of  that  kind  of  grain  from  the  abundant  shores 
of  the  Black  sea  ;  hence  its  name.  Observing  by  the  map 
that  we  were  in  about  the  same  latitude,  I  made  trial  the 
first  season  of  but  one  peck,  (not  being  certain  that  it  was 
spring  wheat.)  The  product  was  large  in  slraiu;  but  owing 
to  our  unpropitious  storms  and  bad  weather  for  a  wheat  crop, 
the  kernel  was  not  so  fair  as  the  original.  Nothing  discour- 
aged, however,  I  sowed  from  this  product  rather  than  the 
original;  the  product  from  which  more  than  answered  my 
expectation.  From  this  last  product  I  sowed,  the  19th  of 
April,  two  bushels  and  a  quarter  on  one  acre  of  land  which 
had  potatoes  grown  on  it  the  previous  year  (crop,  six  hun- 
dred and  thirteen  bushels  and  a  half)  This  field,  immedi- 
ately previous  to  sowing,  had  been  ploughed  deep  and  Jine. 
After  the  grain  was  harrowed  in  across  the  furrows,  the  field 
was  rolled  in,  and  left  from  that  time  to  putting  in  the  sickle. 
I  would  here  observe,  however,  that  my  usual  custom  has 
been,  to  sow  on  about  twenty  bushels  of  good  unleached 
wood  ashes  to  the  acre,  so  soon  as  the  wheat  plants  are  two 
inches  in  height,  and  in  a  damp  morning,  if  such  can  be 
had.  The  value  of  such  dressing  I  have  considered  to  con- 
sist, 1st,  in  the  caustic  quality  of  the  ashes,  as  it  is  a  pre- 
ventive to  the  ravages  of  the  white  maggot  which  sometimes 
preys  at  the  roots  of  the  young  plants  ;  2d,  considered  as  a 
manure  or  top-dressing,  it  no  doubt  contributes  to  the  earlier 
perfecting  the  kernel  or  berry,  and  at  the  same  time  to  a 
more  vigorous  growth  of  the  straw. 

"  The  seed  was  prepared  as  usual,  by  stirring  into  the 
heap  thick  whitewash  made  from  quicklime,  until  every 
kernel  received  a  coat  of  the  same  ;  say  one  quart  of  un- 
slacked  lime  to  each  bushel  of  wheat.  I  prefer  lime  to  lye 
made  of  wood  ashes,  [only,]  on  account  of  its  whiteness, 
thereby  rendering  it  easier  to  throw  the  seed  (broad-cast) 
more  evenly  on  the  field. 

"The  character  of  the  soil  is  a  deep  loam,  intermixed  with 
cobble  stones.  Its  naturjfl  forest  growth  had  been  oak,  (white 
and  red,)  beech,  rock  maple,  chestnut,  and  hemlock. 


124  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

"  The  character  of  the  wheat  appears  to  differ  from  our 
usual  kinds,  by  the  straw  being  much  taller;  (some  of  which 
was  five  feet  ten  inches  in  height;)  and  although  it  is  what 
we  call  bearded,  and  the  heads  of  two  varieties,  similar  in 
appearance  to  our  red  and  white,  yet  there  is  a  variety,  (say 
a  sixth  part  perhaps,)  which,  notwithstanding  the  head  is 
short,  yet  the  kernels  are  so  closely  set  that  I  have  repeat- 
edly counted  over  eighty  kernels  from  one  ear  or  head. 
This  variety  I  call  the  pearl,  from  its  clear  appearance.  The 
kernel  throughout  the  crop  was  very  plump  and  large  ;  the 
straw  stout  as  well  as  tall,  bearing  the  beating  of  our  New 
England  storms  better  than  any  I  have  heretofore  grown. 
I  have  not  the  least  doubt  but  it  will  succeed  well,  where 
other  varieties  have  prospered,  and  have  no  hesitation  in 
believing  it  will  be  a  valuable  acquisition  for  many  years  to 
come  to  the  agricultural  interests  of  our  country." 


RYE.  The  farmer  who  has  it  in  his  power  to  drive  his 
business,  instead  of  being  driven  by  it,  will  do  well  to  sow 
his  winter  rye  some  time  between  the  middle  of  August  and 
the  middle  of  September.  If  it  be  sowed  so  early,  it  will  be 
less  apt  to  winter-kill,  will  require  less  seed,  the  growth  will 
be  stouter,  and  the  produce  greater,  other  things  being 
equal,  than  if  the  sowing  was  deferred  till  late  in  autumn. 

Some  foreign  writers  on  agriculture  assure  us,  that  winter 
rye  and  spring  rye  are  of  the  same  species;  and,  "  The  Far- 
mer's Assistant,"  says  "  There  is  but  one  kind  of  rye  ;  but 
this  may  be  made  winter  rye  or  spring  rye,  by  gradually 
habituating  it  to  different  times  of  sowing.  Take  winter  rye, 
for  instance,  and  sow  it  later  and  later  each  fall,  and  it  may 
at  length  be  sown  in  the  spring,  and  become  spring  rye. 
On  the  contrary,  sow  spring  rye  very  late  in  the  fall  at  first, 
and  you  may  gradually  sow  it  earlier  each  year,  until  it 
may  be  sown  in  May,  and  used  the  first  season  for  pasture 
or  mowing,  and  then  grown  to  perfection  the  second  year." 
The  same  opinion  is  likewise  expressed  in  Deane's  "  New 
England  Farmer." 

Rye  is  capable  of  being  cultivated  on  most  kinds  of  land, 
but  the  light  sandy  soils,  where  wheat  will  not  thrive,  are 
the  sorts  of  soil  on  which  it  will,  generally  speaking,  be 
found  most  profitable  to  raise  this  kind  of  produce.  Sir 
John  Sinclair  observes,  that  "  thislspecies  of  grain  is  not  so 


AND  RURAL    ECONOMIST.  125 

extensively  cultivated  in  Scotland  as  it  ought  to  be;  (for 
weighty  crops  of  it  might  be  raised  on  soils  of  the  most  po- 
rous and  arid  nature,  and  upon  almost  pure  sand  along  the 
seashore;)  and  the  winter  sort,  without  which  the  people 
living  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  could  hardly  be  subsisted, 
is  almost  unknown.  Thirty-five  bushels  of  rye  were  raised 
upon  an  acre,  on  land  that  would  not  have  produced  twenty 
bushels  of  oats.  Indeed,  oats,  sown  along  side  of  the  rye, 
upon  the  same  field,  and  on  land  as  nearly  as  could  be  judg- 
ed of  the  same  quality,  were  scarcely  worth  the  expense  of 
reaping.  On  moorish  land,  rye  has  been  found  a  more 
certain  crop  than  oats.  Mr.  George  Culley  remarks,  that 
rye,  like  oats,  will  answer  in  crude  soils  without  lime,  or 
calcareous  manures,  which  renders  that  crop  peculiarly  cal- 
culated for  waste  lands  when  first  brought  into  cultiva- 
tion." 

Lands  which  will  produce  tolerable  crops  of  wheat  had 
better  be  cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  raising  wheat  than 
rye.  And,  if  we  may  believe  what  English  writers  tell  us 
relative  to  this  subject,  the  use  of  lime  for  manure  will  often 
so  far  change  the  nature  of  a  poor  soil,  proper  only  for  rye, 
that  wheat  may  be  made  its  substitute.  Mr.  Marshall,  in 
his  "  Rural  Economy  of  Yorkshire,"  says,  "Before  the  use 
of  lime  was  prevalent,  much  rye  was  grown  on  the  lighter 
lands  upon  the  margin  of  the  Vale,  and  in  the  Moorlands 
scarcely  any  other  crops  than  rye  and  oats  were  attempted. 
Now,  rye  is  principally  confined  to  the  Moorland  dales;  and 
even  there  the  alteration  of  soils  by  lime  has  been  such  that 
wheat  has  become  the  more  prevalent  crop.  Nevertheless, 
on  light,  sandy  soils,  rye  is  generally  more  profitable  than 
wheat,  and  the  bread  which  is  made  from  a  mixture  of  the 
two  grains  is  here  esteemed  more  wholesome  to  people  in 
general  than  that  which  is  made  from  wheat  alone." 

When  rye  is  sown  upon  light  land  it  ripens  much  earlier 
than  on  a  cold,  stiff  ground,  and  it  is  said  by  some  writers 
that,  by  continuing  to  sow  on  such  a  soil  for  two  or  three 
years,  it  will  be  forwarded  so  much  as  to  ripen  a  month  ear- 
lier than  that  which  has  been  raised  upon  strong,  cold  ground. 
For  this  reason,  those  who  sow  their  rye  late  will  do  well  to 
provide  themselves  with  this  early  seed. 

Dr.  Elliot  informs,  that  if  rye  be  sowed  successively  every 

year  upon  the  same  land,  both   the  crop    and  the  land  will 

be  greatly  improved,  insomuch    that  some   grounds,   which 

would  yield  but  five  bushels  to  the  acre  at  first,  have  in  time 

11* 


126  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

produced  a  crop  of  fifteen  bushels,  without  the  charge  of 
manure;  and  Dr.  Deane  observed,  that  he  "  had  known  the 
same  spot  produce  twenty  crops  of  this  grain  in  succession, 
excepting  that  it  was  planted  with  Indian  corn  once  or  twice, 
to  subdue  the  weeds,  and  that  the  crops  yearly  increased  in- 
stead of  diminishing."  But  this,  it  is  said,  will  not  be  the 
case,  unless  the  soil  is  naturally  of  a  good  quality,  and  the 
stubble  be  completely  turned  under,  immediately  after  reap- 
ing. If  the  ground  is  suffered  to  remain  after  harvest  with- 
out being  ploughed  till  the  stubble  is  dried  and  shrivelled  so 
that  it  possesses  but  little  substance,  and  the  seeds  of  weeds 
have  had  time  to  ripen,  the  crops  of  grain  in  each  succeed- 
ing year  will  be  diminished,  and  the  weeds  will  take  an  al- 
most exclusive  possession  of  the  soil. 

"  The  Farmer's  Assistant  "  is  opposed  to  the  raising  of 
successive  crops  of  rye,  unless  as  much  as  twenty-five 
bushels  of  this  grain  can  be  yearly  had  from  the  acre;  as 
such  an  annual  product  would  probably  afford  a  clear  profit 
to  the  acre  of  half  that  number  of  bushels;  and  such  a  profit, 
he  observes,  in  some  of  the  lighter  and  in  some  of  the  hard- 
er kinds  of  soil  is  not  to  be  despised.  The  same  writer  re- 
commends sowing  winter  rye  and  spring  rye,  alternately,  ia 
order  that  the  ground  might,  every  other  year,  be  enriched 
by  the  application  of  gypsum.  "  The  growing  crop  of  rye," 
he  says,  "receives  no  benefit  from  the  application  of  this 
manure;  but  it  quickly  covers  the  ground  with  a  fine  sward 
of  white  clover;  and  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  thus  swarded, 
it  is  in  good  condition  for  bearing  any  crop.  Let  the  gyp- 
sum, therefore,  be  sown  in  the  spring,  on  the  growing  crop 
of  winter  rye,  and  by  the  middle  of  October  following  the 
ground  will  be  covered  with  white  clover;  turn  this  sward 
over  in  the  latter  end  of  the  fall,  and  in  the  spring  sow  a 
crop  of  spring  rye  ;  and,  as  soon  as  this  is  taken  off",  turn 
the  ground  over  again  for  a  crop  of  winter  rye;  and  in  the 
spring  repeat  the  process  of  manuring  with  gypsum,  as  be- 
fore, for  a  crop  of  spring  rye;  and  thus  proceed  with  these 
crops  alternately." 

Some  sow  their  winter  rye  at  the  last  hoeing  of  Indian 
corn,  and  hoe  it  in;  and  this,  Dr.  Deane  observed,  was  a 
good  practice,  when  it  is  sown  on  flat  land,  or  on  a  rich  or 
heavy  soil,  where  grain  is  apt  to  suffer  by  the  frost  of 
winter;  for  the  plants  of  rye  will  be  mostly  on  the  corn  hills, 
and  so  escape  injury  from  frost;  at  least  they  will  most  com- 
monly escape,  or  so  many  of  them  as  are  necessary  to  give 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  127 

a  good  crop.     The  plants  that  are  killed  will  be  those  in  the 
low  spaces  betwixt  the  hills. 

Rye  is  not  only  a  proper  crop  on  land  which  is  too  poor 
to  produce  a  good  crop  of  wheat,  but  it  should  be  sown  on  a 
soil  which  is  very  rich,  in  preference  to  wheat,  because  it  is 
less  apt  to  grow  so  rank  as  to  lodge  or  blast  than  wheat. 
It  is  a  very  suitable  crop  for  drained  bogs.  In  the  first  vol- 
ume of  "Communications  to  the  British  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture," (p.  341,)  in  speaking  of  the  culture  of  rye  in  Russia, 
it  is  observed,  that  the  produce  from  boggy  lands  drained  and 
sowed  with  rye  is  upwards  of  forty  bushels  to  one  sowed; 
and  they  generally  use  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  seed  in 
sowing  such  lands.  Another  proof  that  rye  will  bear  very 
plentiful  manuring,  may  be  adduced  from  a  case  reported  by 
Mr.  L'Hommedieu,  of  New  York,  who  observed,  in  sub- 
stance, that  a  neighbour  of  his  manured  twenty  square  rods 
of  poor,  gravelly,  dry  soil,  with  four  thousand  Menhaden  fish, 
and  sowed  it  with  rye,  at  the  rate  of  about  one  bushel  to  the 
acre.  In  the  spring  it  was  twice  successively  eaten  off, 
close  to  the  ground,  by  sheep  breaking  in,  after  it  had  ac- 
quired a  height  of  nine  inches  the  first  time,  and  six  inches 
the  latter.  These  croppings,  however,  only  served  to  make 
it  grow  thicker  and  stronger  than  before;  and  when  harvest- 
ed it  produced  sixteen  bushels,  or  at  the  rate  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-eight  bushels  to  the  acre;  giving  to  the 
owner,  according  to  the  calculation  of  Mr.  L'Hommedieu, 
at  the  rate  of  eighty-five  dollars  to  the  acre  of  clear  profit.* 

In  the  "Memoirs  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture," (Vol.  I.  p.  82,)  it  is  said,  "Rye  should  be  sowed  the 
last  week  in  August,  or  the  first  week  in  September,  at  the 
rate  of  about  thirty-six  quarts  per  acre;  some  say  forty-eight 
quarts.  But  if  it  is  not  sowed  at  that  time  it  may  not  come  up 
until  spring.  A  Worthington  had  a  good  crop,  which  he 
sowed  in  a  January  snow  storm.  Rye  raised  on  upland 
makes  much  better  flour  than  that  which  is  raised  on  low  or 
damp  land." 

Rye  may  be  sown  in  autumn  to  great  advantage  for  green 
fodder  for  cattle  and  sheep,  particularly  the  latter,  in  the 
spring.  Ewes  and  lambs  will  derive  much  benefit  from  it, 
at  a  time  when  little  or  no  other  green  feed  can  be  procured. 

*  Transactions  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Society,  part  3,  pp.  35,  36.  — 
This  account  may  seem  incredible,  but  Mr.  L'Hommedieu  declared  thiit  it  was 
attested  to  by  many  crcdil)le  witnesses. 


128  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

When  it  is  meant  for  this  purpose,  it  should  not  only  be  sow- 
ed early  in  autumn,  but  should  be  sowed  thicker  than  when 
it  is  intended  to  stand  for  a  crop  of  seed.  Some  say  that  it 
may  well  be  mowed  for  hay  two  or  three  times  in  the  course 
of  the  summer;  and  this  piece  of  husbandry  is  recommend- 
ed for  farmers  whose  lands  are  mostly  dry  or  unsuitable  for 
grass. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  on  an  acre  should  vary 
according  to  the  soil,  the  time  of  sowing,  and  the  purposes 
for  which  it  is  intended.  If  it  be  sowed  in  the  latter  part  of 
August,  or  beginning  of  September,  and  is  intended  to  re- 
main for  a  seed  crop,  the  quantity  should  vary  from  thirty- 
two  to  forty-eight  quarts,  according  to  the  goodness  of  soil. 
Later  sowing  requires  more  seed,  and  in  some  cases  two 
bushels  to  an  acre  will  not  be  too  great  a  quantity.  Ban- 
nister's Husbandry  says,  "  When  this  grain  is  sown  for 
sheep  feed,  it  is  proper  to  allow  three  bushels  to  the  acre, 
for  where  the  blade,  haulm,  or  stalks  form  the  primary  ob- 
ject, a  much  larger  proportion  of  seed  is  requisite  than  when 
the  crop  is  meant  for  harvesting." 

Mr.  Adams  Knight,  of  Newbury,  Massachusetts,  received 
a  premium  of  twenty  dollars,  from  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural Society,  for  a  crop  of  rye,  obtained  as  follows: 

"  The  soil  is  a  gravelly  loam,  rather  dry  than  otherwise. 
The  land  was  planted  with  corn  in  the  spring  of  1831,  and 
manured  in  the  hills  with  about  six  cords  of  manure  to  the 
acre,  of  common  quality.  In  the  month  of  August  follow- 
ing, said  acre  was  sowed  with  three  pecks  of  seed,  and  hoed 
in  the  usual  manner.  In  the  month  of  August,  1832,  the 
rye  was  reaped  and  threshed,  and  found  to  measure  forty- 
five  bushels  and  five-eighths  of  a  bushel.  There  is  standing 
on  said  acre  of  land  seventy-five  appletrees,  from  two  to  six 
inches  through  at  the  root."* 

The  same  year  Mr.  Gideon  Foster,  of  Charlestown,  Mas- 
sachusetts, obtained  thirty-eight  and  one-sixteenth  bushels  of 
rye  from  one  acre,  as  follows: 

"The  land  is  bordering  on,  and  near  the  mouth  of  Mystic 
river.  The  soil  is  principally  a  black  loam,  with  clay  bot- 
tom. In  1831  it  was  planted  with  potatoes,  with  a  moderate 
supply  of  manure,  and  yielded  an  ordinary  crop.  The  pota- 
toes were  removed  the  last  week  in  September,  the  land  well 
ploughed  and   harrowed  in  the   usual  way,  with  one  and  a 

*  Kew  England  Farmer,  Vol.  XI.  p.   238. 


AND   KUUAL   ECONOMIST.  I'iS 

half  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre.  I  owe  my  success  princi- 
pally to  the  use  of  night  manure,  and  to  that  in  consequence 
of  its  being  well  prepared  by  age,  and  thoroughly  mixed  with 
a  large  proportion  of  earth,  and  frequently  removed  by  the 
fork  and  the  shovel;  so  that  in  this  way,  being  ripened  for 
use,  it  went  immediately  (not  to  burn,  as  when  applied  green 
or  new,  but)  to  nourish  and  fertilize  the  soil.  There  was 
early  in  the  spring  of  the  present  year  spread  on  the  field 
about  eight  cords  of  the  above  described  manure.  The  field 
was  harvested  the  latter  part  of  August,  the  grain  threshed 
soon  after,  and  measured  by  the  purchaser,  whose  certificate 
followed,  showing  the  product  to  be  sixty-one  and  three- 
fourths  bushels,  or  thirty-eight  bushels  and  two  quarts  to  the 
acre."* 

The  following  is  from  the  ' '  Transactions  of  the  Essex 
Agricultural  Society." 

•'  To  the  Trustees  of  the  Essex  Agricultural  Society. 

"  Gentlemen,  —  Having  for  many  years  past  been  more  than  commonly 
successful  in  raising  large  crops  of  winter  rye  by  a  process  of  cultivation  which, 
I  believe,  is  entirely  new,  I  have  been  induced  to  submit  a  statement  of  the 
mode  of  culture,  with  tlie  produce.  And,  that  the  success  of  the  experiment 
this  season  may  not  appear  to  be  altogether  accidental,  it  will,  perhaps,  be  as 
well  to  communicate  the  result  of  the  process  for  the  three  or  four  previous  years. 

"  The  land  on  which  the  experiment  has  been  conducted,  is  situated  on  the 
Merrimack,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  east  of  Haverhill  bridge  ;  and  came  into 
possession  of  my  father  in  1S27.  The  soil  is  a  sand,  approaching  to  loam  as  it 
recedes  from  the  river.  Perhaps  the  term  plain  land  (by  which  it  usually 
passes)  will  better  convey  an  idea  of  the  quality  of  the  soil.  It  is  altogether 
too  light  for  grass.  The  crops  we  find  most  profitable  to  cultivate  on  it,  are 
winter  rye,  Indian  corn,  potatoes,  and  to  some  extent  turnips.  Oats  might 
probably  be  raised  to  advantage,  were  it  not  that  the  land  is  completely  filled 
with  the  weed  commonly  called  charlock,  which  renders  it  entirely  unfit  for  any 
spring  crop,  excepting  such  as  can  be  hoed.  The  crops  of  rye  on  the  neighbour- 
ing soil  of  the  same  nature  vary,  I  believe,  from  seven  or  eight  to  twelve  or 
thirteen  bushels  per  acre,  according  to  the  cultivation,  and  their  approximation 
to  the  river.  We  usually  raise  ou  this  land  from  thirteen  to  thirty  bushels  of 
Indian  corn  per  acre.  Potatoes  are  very  good  in  quality,  but  the  quantity  is 
quite  small  ;  not  sufficient  to  be  profitable,  were  it  not  that  the  land  is  very 
easily  cultivated. 

"  In  the  summer  of  1827,  we  sowed  three  bushels  of  winter  rye  near  the  river, 
on  about  two  acres  of  land,  which  produced  twenty-eight  bushels. 

"  In  1828,  we  sowed  four  bushels  on  four  acres  of  land  running  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  the  plain  from  the  river.  This  piece  was  sowed  in  the  spring  with  oats; 
but  they  were  completely  smothered  with  charlock,  and  about  the  middle  of 
June,  the  whole  crop  was  mowed  to  prevent  the  charlock  seeding.  By  about  the 
middle  of  August,  a  second  crop  of  charlock  having  covered  the  land,  it  was 
ploughed  very  carefidly,  in  order  completely  to  bury  the  charlock;  and  then  suf- 
fered to  remain  until  the  15th  of  September,  when  we  began  sowing  the  rye  in 
the  following  manner.     A  strip  of  land  about  twelve  yards  wide  was  ploughed 


*  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  XI.  p.  243. 


130  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

very  evenly,  to  preveat  deep  gutters  between  the  furrows,  and  the  seed  immedi- 
ately sown  upon  tlie  furrow  and  harrowed  in  ;  then  another  strip  of  the  same 
width,  and  so  on,  until  the  whole  was  finished.  We  found  tlie  oat  stubble  and 
charlock  entirely  rotted,  and  the  land  appeared  as  if  it  had  been  well  manured, 
though  none  had  been  applied  to  this  part  since  it  had  been  in  our  possession. 
The  rje  sprung  very  quick  and  vigorously,  having  evidently  derived  great  lx:nefit 
from  being  sown  and  sprouted  before  the  moisture  supplied  by  the  decaying 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  had  evapwrated  to  any  considerable' extent.  This 
crop  produced  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  bushels. 

"  In  1S29,  the  charlock  was  suffered  to  grow  on  the  land  appropriated  to  rye, 
until  it  had  attained  its  growth  and  was  in  full  blossom.  The  land  was  then 
ploughed  very  carefully,  and  the  charlock  completely  covered  in.  In  a  short 
time  a  second  crop  appeared,  more  vigorous  than  the  first.  This  also  was  al- 
lowed to  attain  its  growth,  and  then  ploughed  in  as  before.  A  third  crop  soon 
appeared,  which  of  course  was  destroyed,  when  the  land  was  again  ploughed  for 
sowing,  about  the  middle  of  September.  This  piece  of  land  was  a  parallel  strip 
running  from  the  river,  and  containing  two  acres.  Two  bushels  of  rve  were 
sowed.  The  crop  presented  a  remarkably  promising  apjsearance,  and  "yielded 
eevenly-four  and  a  half  bushels. 

"  In  1S30,  the  land  appropriated  to  rye  included  nearly  all  the  lighter  part  of 
the  soil,  and  owing  to  a  pressure  of  business  was  not  attended  to  as  we  could 
have  wished.  It  was  ploughed  in  (he  early  part  of  the  summer;  but  harrowing 
to  destroy  the  weeds  was  substituted  for  the  second  ploughing.  This,  and  the 
unusual  blight  which  afiected  all  the  grain  in  this  part  of  the  counuj ,  led  us  to 
anticipate  a  small  crop.     It  yielded,  however,  fifteen  bushels  to  the  acre. 

"  The  land  on  which  the  crop  of  rve  was  raised  the  present  season  had  for 
three  or  four  previous  years  been  planted  with  Indian  corn;  and  owing  to  the 
extent  of  our  tillage  land,  we  have  not  been  able  to  apply  more  than  four  or  five 
loads  of  manure  to  the  acre  this  season.  The  charlock  was  suflfered  to  attain  its 
growth  as  usual;  and  on  the  18th  and  19th  of  June  it  was  carefully  ploughed  in. 
The  second  crop  was  ploughed  in  on  the  6th  and  7th  of  August.  On  the  14th 
and  15th  of  September  it  was  sowed  in  the  usual  manner,  namely,  a  small  strip 
of  land  was  ploughed,  and  the  seed  sown  immediatelv  upon  the  furrow,  and  then 
harrowed  in;  then  another  strip  of  land  was  ploughed,  and  so  on,  until  the 
whole  was  completed.  One  bushel  jjer  acre  was  sowed,  as  usual.  The  seed 
was  originally  obtained  from  a  farmer  in  this  vicinity,  and  I  suppose  is  similar 
to  that  which  is  generally  used.  We  have  never  prepared  our  seed  in  any  man- 
ner, but  have  directed  our  attention  solely  to  the  preparation  of  the  land ;  and 
to  this  we  attribute  our  success.  Owing  to  the  unusual  severity  of  the  winter, 
the  crop  was  considerably  winter-killed,  but  recovered  very  soon  in  the  spring, 
excepting  in  the  midfurrows.  There,  as  the  land  lies  verj-  level,  the  water  set- 
tled, and  so  completely  destroyed  the  rye  that  they  continued  bare  the  whole 
season.  This  would  of  course  cause  some  diminution  in  the  crop  ;  perhaps  a 
bushel  or  two.  The  rye  was  reaped  at  the  usual  season,  and,  as  the  weather 
was  favorable,  immediately  put  into  the  barn.  The  land  contained  one  acre  and 
thirteen  rods,  and  yielded  forty-six  bushels  and  three  pecks :  a  remaTkably  fine 
s  am  fie. 

"  Sowing  the  seed  immediately  after  the  plough  we  consider  very  advantage- 
ous to  the  crop.  The  soil  being  then  moist,  causes  the  seed  to  spring  immedi- 
ately, and  gives  a  forwardness  and  vigor  to  the  plants,  which  they  ever  after 
retain. 

"  The  process  of  ploughing  in  three  crops  of  w-eeds,  before  the  seed  is  sown, 
very  much  enriches  tJie  soil.  It  would  be  altogether  unnecessan.-  to  attempt  to 
refute  the  notion,  that  by  such  a  process  nothing  more  is  applied  to  the  soil  than 
was  before  derived  from  it.  If  one  could  not  discover  by  the  light  which  chem- 
istry has  shed  upon  the  subject  of  agriculture  sufficient  reasons  for  the  contrary 
conclusion,  observation,  one  would  think,  would  be  sufficient  to  convince  any 
intelligent  oian  of  the  fact. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  131 

"  And  here  I  would  suggest,  that  I  do  not  consider  the  experiment,  as  we 
liave  conducted  it,  quite  complete.  To  render  it  more  so,  in  the  first  place,  in 
ploughing  ill  the  weeds,  1  would  uot  turn  a  furrow  after  tlie  dew  had  evaporated. 
I  have  no  doubt  but  that  a  large  portion  of  that  fertilizing  quality  in  the  soil, 
which  (during  the  summer  months)  is  continually  exhaled  from  the  earth,  is  by 
the  dew  brought  again  within  our  reach,  and  it  would  be  wise  to  avail  ourselves 
of  the  opportunity  of  again  burying  it  in  the  soil.  And  in  the  second  place,  I 
would  by  all  means  use  a  heavy  roller  after  each  ploughing.  It  would  fill  all 
the  cavities  left  by  the  plough,  and  by  pressing  the  soil  more  closely  to  the 
weeds,  at  once  hasten  their  decomposition  and  very  much  retard  the  evapora- 
tion from  the  soil. 

"  But  the  land  is  not  only  very  much  enriched  by  this  process.  There  is,  I 
conceive,  no  method  by  which  it  can  be  so  effectually  cleaned.  Three  times 
during  the  season  a  fresh  surface  is  presented  to  the  atmosphere;  and  each  time, 
as  the  decaying  vegetable  matter  increases  in  the  soil,  so  is  the  exciting  cause 
augmented  to  make  a  more  vigorous  effort.  We  have  in  this  manner  gone 
over  nearly  all  our  land  which  is  infested  with  charlock,  and  the  diminution  of 
the  weeds  is  quite  suflicient  to  warrant  the  expectation,  that  in  a  few  years  it 
may  be  comparatively  eradicated. 

"  Very  respectfully,  John   Keely. 

"  Haverhill,  September  22,  1832." 


OATS.  The  following  remarks  are  extracted  from  a  com- 
munication for  the  "New  England  Farmer,"  written  by 
Henry  Stevens,  of  Barnet,  Vt.: 

"Various  are  the  kinds  of  oats.  The  barley  or  Scotch 
oats,  so  called,  I  have  cultivated,  but  not  with  very  great 
success  ;  their  weight  is  generally  about  forty-two  pounds 
per  bushel.  I  have  seldom  been  able  to  raise  more  than  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre.  The  black  oats  I 
have  cultivated;  their  weight  is  about  thirty-six  pounds  per 
bushel,  and  produce  about  as  many  bushels  per  acre  as  the 
barley  or  Scotch  oats.  The  greatest  objection  I  have  to  the 
barley  or  Scotch  oats  is,  that  they  must  be  harvested  suddenly 
after  they  are  fit,  in  order  to  prevent  waste.  The  common 
oats  which  are  raised  I  consider  preferable.  My  average 
crop  of  late  years  has  been  from  forty  to  fifty  bushels  per 
acre,  and  in  one  instance  sixty-five  bushels  per  acre. 

"  I  make  oats  principally,  and  generally  speaking,  my  first 
crop,  in  the  line  of  a  rotation  of  crops.  I  break  up  the  piece 
intended  for  this  crop  in  the  fall,  if  possible,  and  in  the  spring 
cross-plough  and  harrow  thoroughly  before  I  sow  my  grain ; 
then  harrow  again  until  the  turf  is  well  pulverized;  then 
sow  ten  bushels  of  clover-seed  chaff  per  acre,  and  roll  it  in. 
As  soon  as  the  grain  is  harvested,  and  the  young  clover  has 
received  its  growth,  I  plough  it  in.  This  clover  with  the 
stubble  is  about  equal  to  a  common  dressing  of  compost  ma- 
nure.    In  the  fall,  plough,  in  the  spring  T  cross-plough,  after 


132  THE   CO>rPLETE  FARJrER 

taking  from  my  compost  heap  thirty  loads  per  acre,  which 
are  carefully  spread.  The  lot  then  being  well  harrowed  and 
furrowed,  is  ready  for  planting,  either  with  corn,  potatoes,  or 
turnips.  This  is  my  second  crop.  For  my  third  crop,  I 
aoain  sow  wheat,  peas,  flax,  oats,  Slc,  and  stock  the  lot  down 
with  herd's  grass  and  red  top,  which  I  believe  make  the  best 
of  hay.  I  let  the  lot  remain  in  grass  three  years.  Thus  I 
till  three  years,  or  mow  or  pasture  three  years.  My  first 
and  third  crop  is  principally  oats. 

"  I  have  frequently  been  told,  that  oats  and  corn  were  very 
impoverishing  crops;  but  I  find  no  difficulty  in  enriching  my 
land  as  above  stated.  Ten  years  ago  my  average  crop  of 
corn  was  from  thirty  to  forty  bushels  per  acre  ;  but  in  pass- 
ing over  a  lot  the  second  time,  which  was  managed  as  above, 
in  the  summer  of  18-21,  I  had  the  satisfaction  of  harvesting 
ninety-six  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  and  received  the  society's 
premium.  3Iy  other  crops  have  advanced  in  about  the  same 
proportion. 

"  The  inquiry  will  naturally  be  made,  what  I  do  with  my 
oats  .'  Well,  sir,  after  I  have  reserved  for  my  stock  and  for 
seed,  I  take  the  remainder  to  my  mill  and  manufacture  them 
into  flour  and  meal.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  oats  are 
kiln  dried,  then  hulled  about  as  clean  as  rice,  then  ground, 
and  bolted  or  sifted,  as  the  case  may  be.  That  which  I  bolt 
is  calculated  to  be  mixed  with  wheat  flour,  for  bread  ;  in 
which  case  the  oat  flour,  being  kiln  dried,  must  be  scalded 
before  it  is  mixed  with  the  wheat  flour,  otherwise  the  bread 
will  be  too  dry.  Good  oat  flour,  prepared  as  above,  mixed 
with  wheat  flour,  half  and  half,  will  make  as  light  and  plea- 
sant bread  as  common  country  wheat  flour,  and  it  will 
trouble  good  judges  of  bread  to  tell  it  from  clear  flour  bread. 
Again,  it  is  excellent  to  make  butter  cake,  by  the  Yankees 
called  slapjacks.  The  oatmeal  is  calculated  for  puddings, 
and  is  a  substitute  for  rye  meal  to  mix  with  corn  meal  or  rye 
meal  for  bread.  In  either  case,  the  oatmeal  must  be  scalded 
before  it  is  mixed. 

"Thus  after  supplying  my  family,  the  remainder  is  for 
market.  The  oat  flour  I  have  generally  sold  in  Boston  and 
New  York  to  the  druggists.  The  meal  is  also  purchased  by 
the  druggists.  I  have  generally  sold  them  oat  flour  for  from 
four  to  five  dollars  per  hundred,  and  the  meal  from  three  fifty 
to  four  fiftv,  which  is  by  them  retailed  as  medicine,  from 
twelve  to  twentv  cents  per  pound. 

"The  mealis  frequently  bought    by  foreigners,   by  the 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  133 

barrel  or  hundred,  for  family  use.  The  sale  of  oatmeal  is 
at  present  rather  limited;  the  reason  is,  that  but  very  few 
people  in  this  country,  save  foreigners,  are  acquainted  with 
the  use  of  it,  except  for  medicine.  Foreigners  generally 
prefer  oatmeal  to  flour.  I  really  hope,  both  for  our  health 
and  the  interest  of  agriculture,  that  the  time  is  not  far  dis- 
tant, when  oat  flour  and  meal  will  be  used  in  every  family 
for  food. 

"  Much  may  be  said,  as  to  the  value  of  this  article  as  medi- 
cine, as  well  as  for  food.  It  has  been  a  common  article  for 
food  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  for  many  years.  Seldom,  if 
ever,  an  English,  Scotch,  or  Irish  vessel  sailed  without  a 
supply  of  oatmeal;  and  I  may  say,  it  would  be  well  for  every 
commander  of  an  American  vessel,  in  making  up  his  order 
for  ship  stores,  to  include  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oatmeal  or 
flour  for  his  voyage." 

A  writer  in  ' '  The  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository, " 
(Vol.  V.  pp.  331-2,)  says,  "  It  appears  to  us  best,  all  things 
considered,  that  the  first  crop,  after  turning  over  sward, 
should  be  oats.  The  reason  why  an  oat  crop  should  pre- 
cede a  potatoe  crop  is,  that  it  not  only  pays  well  by  its  pro- 
duct for  the  year's  labor,  but  enables  the  husbandman  to 
deepen  his  ploughing,  preparatory  to  the  second  year's 
series  in  the  rotation." 

We  believe  that  oatmeal  is  of  more  value  as  an  article  of 
diet  than  is  generally  supposed  in  this  country.  Loudon,  in 
his  "Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture,"  observes,  that 

"Oatmeal,  when  it  is  sufficiently  diluted  with  any  sort  of 
liquid,  is  known  to  be  laxative,  aperient,  wholesome,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  strengthening  food  for  those  engaged  in 
hard  labor.  Engineers  who  superintend  the  excavation  of 
canals  have  assured  the  reporter,  that  those  laborers  who 
lived  entirely  on  oatmeal  and  milk,  did  a  third  more  work 
than  those  who  used  butcher's  meat  and  ardent  spirits.  All 
of  the  former  saved  money,  while  many  of  the  latter  involved 
themselves  in  debt.  As  this  sort  of  work  is  done  by  the 
piece,  it  affords  a  fair  comparison  not  only  of  the  wholesome- 
ness  of  oatmeal  in  promoting  health,  but  its  power  in  sup- 
plying labor." 

In  harvesting  oats,  it  is  recommended  to  mow,  instead  of 
reaping  them,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  turn  yellow.  If  they 
are  then  well  dried,  the  straw  will  make  food  for  cattle,  after 
being  threshed,  which  will  be  eaten  by  the  animals  in  pre- 
ference to  the  best  meadow  hay. 
12 


134  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

Mr.  Jacob  Smith,  of  Duxbury,  Massachusetts,  is  said  to 
have  raised,  in  1833,  the  prodigious  crop  of  seventy-four 
busheh  and  three  pecks  of  oats  on  four-fifths  of  an  acre.  The 
average  height  of  the  plants  at  the  time  of  harvest  was  esti- 
mated at  five  feet  four  inches. 


BARLEY.  The  following  is  from  the  pen  of  judge  Buel, 
of  Albany. 

"  The  soil  for  barley  should  be  such  as  will  grow  good 
turnips,  or  other  green  crops,  including  clovers,  and  which 
embrace  the  varieties  of  loams  and  sands  that  are  not  wet, 
or  very  dry  and  poor.  Indeed,  I  have  taken  my  crops,  and 
they  have  been  pretty  good,  from  my  lightest  turnip  soils. 
Barley  cannot  be  cultivated  to  advantage  upon  stiff,  heavy, 
and  wet  grounds,  or  on  such  as  are  of  a  cold  and  tenacious 
quality.  This  crop  occupies  the  ground  but  about  three 
months;  and  it  is  only  in  a  dry,  light,  mellow  soil,  that  its 
roots  can  extend  with  sufficient  facility,  and  supply  the  food 
necessary  to  bring  the  grain  to  rapid  and  perfect  maturity. 

"  Previous  Crop.  Crops  that  precede  this  grain  should  be 
such  as  leave  the  ground  mellow  and  free  from  weeds;  and 
for  this  reason  hoed  crops  arc  to  be  preferred,  such  as  tur- 
nips, potatoes,  peas,  beans,  &c.  Small  grains  should  not 
precede  it  ;  they  impoverish  the  soil,  leave  it  foul,  and,  be- 
sides, it  is  contravening  one  of  the  most  salutary  maxims  of 
husbandry  to  grow  two  dry  crops  in  succession.  It  may 
follow  clover;  but  if  the  soil  is  heavy,  the  ley  should  be 
ploughed  in  autumn.  Barley  is  successfully  sown  upon  the 
fallows  in  England,  (not  summer,  but  autumn  fallows,)  and 
is  sown  sometimes  after  wheat  ;  but  in  the  latter  case  the 
turnips  are  pulled,  and  previously  fed  upon  the  stubble;  a 
practice  which  I  think  is  not  likely  to  obtain  here.  I  have 
generally  sown  barley  after  ruta  baga  or  potatoes,  these 
crops  having  received  a  good  dressing  of  long  yard  or  stable 
manure. 

"  Manure  should  not  be  applied  to  the  barley,  but  to  the 
preceding  crop.  The  short  period  that  this  grain  occupies 
the  ground,  does  not  afford  time  for  the  manure  to  decompose 
and  yield  its  food  to  the  plants;  and,  if  applied  in  excess,  it 
causes  a  too  rank  vegetation,  and  the  straw  lodges  before 
the  grain  is  matured.  When  a  fallow  or  clover  ley  is  em- 
ployed and  ploughed  in  autumn,  dung  may  be  previously 
employed  and  ploughed  under. 


ANU  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  135 

"  Preparation  of  the  Ground.  Where  barley  follows  a  root 
or  hoed  crop,  one  ploughing  will  generally  suffice  ;  but  in 
all  cases  a  complete  pulverization  of  the  soil  is  necessary; 
and  to  effect  this  a  roller  is  often  of  material  benefit.  If 
sown  upon  grass  leys,  ploughed  in  autumn,  the  spring 
ploughing  should  be  shallow,  so  as  to  leave  the  sod  reversed. 
But  the  preferable  way  may  be  to  harrow  the  fallow,  plough 
in  the  seed  with  a  light  furrow,  and  smooth  off  with  the 
harrow. 

"  The  Seed  and  Sowing.  Loudon  enumerates  six  species 
and  sub-species  of  the  barley.  The  kinds  uniformly  culti- 
vated here,  are  the  two,  four,  and  six-rowed  spring,  (hordcum 
vulgare  and  hordeum  distichon.)  Thin-skinned,  pale,  plump 
seed  should  be  selected.  I  sow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
sufficiently  dry  in  spring.  The  young  grain  is  not  hurt  by 
the  ordinary  frosts  of  the  latter  part  of  April  and  May.  I 
sow  from  six  to  eight  pecks  per  acre,  according  to  the  rich- 
ness of  the  soil  and  the  forwardness  of  the  season;  the  poor- 
est ground  and  the  latest  sowing  requiring  the  most  seed. 
In  England,  the  common  quantity  of  seed  is  from  eight  to 
sixteen  pecks.  Our  climate  being  much  warmer  than  that 
of  Great  Britain,  barley  and  other  grains  till  better  with  us, 
and  consequently  we  require  less  seed.  We  uniformly  sow 
broad-cast,  generally  on  the  fresh  furrow,  and  harrow  in 
both  ways  ;  and  those  who  have  a  roller  use  it  in  the  finish- 
ing operation.  It  gives  a  smooth  surface,  breaks  down  the 
lumps,  brings  the  earth  in  contact  with  the  seed,  and  if  grass 
seeds  have  been  sown,  its  use  is  doubly  beneficial.  I  steep 
my  seeds  twenty-four  hours  in  a  weak  solution  of  nitre,  the 
crude  kind  of  which  costs  me  only  eight  cents  per  pound 
by  the  quantity.  From  the  analysis  and  observations  of 
Grisenthwaite,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  this  salt  is 
peculiarly  beneficial  to  the  barley  crop,  the  grain  yielding  it 
on  analysis.  I  have  made  no  comparative  experiments,  but 
I  think  this  step  serviceable.  I  have  applied  to  this  grain, 
as  a  top-dressing,  with  singular  success,  the  powdered  dung 
of  pigeons  and  dunghill  fowls,  at  the  rate  of  twenty  to  thirty 
bushels  the  acre. 

"The  crop  admits  of  no  after-culture  when  sown  broad-^ 
cast.  Yet  the  application  of  the  roller,  when  the  plants  are 
two  or  three  inches  high,  is  no  doubt  salutary,  especially  if 
there  have  been  no  considerable  rains.  Rolling  gives  a  salu- 
tary compression  to  the  soil,  which  in  the  spring  is  apt  to  be 
loose  and  porous,   and  full  of  cracks,  by  the  alternation  of 


136  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER. 

freezing  and  thawing,  or  of  wet  and  dry  weather;  it  de- 
stroys many  insects  ;  and,  above  all,  it  partially  buries  the 
crowns  of  the  plants,  and  introduces  a  multiplication  of  seed 
stalks.  I  can  recommend  the  practice  from  experience. 
When  grass  seeds  are  sown  with  barley,  the  luxuriance  of 
the  young  grass  sometimes  chokes  the  grain,  robs  it  of 
nutriment,  and  sensibly  diminishes  the  product.  To  obviate 
this  evil  it  has  been  recommended  to  sow  the  grass  seeds 
after  the  barley  has  come  up,  and  to  cover  them  with  a  light 
harrow  and  a  roller  ;  and  it  is  said,  and  I  think  with  truth, 
that  this  operation  will  not  materially  injure  the  grain.  In 
dry  seasons,  the  crop  is  sometimes  attacked  by  worms, 
while  young.  In  this  case  the  roller  should  be  applied  and 
sufficient  weight  added  to  require  the  draught  of  two  or 
three  cattle. 

"  Time  and  Method  of  HarvesHng.  When  the  soil  is  rich 
and  the  season  propitious,  this  grain  is  very  liable  to  lodge. 
If  this  happens  after  it  has  blossomed,  no  material  injury  is 
sustained  in  the  product;  if  before,  the  crop  is  greatly  di- 
minished. This  shows  the  danger  to  be  apprehended  from 
making  the  soil  too  rich,  and  of  applying  fresh  manure. 
Barley  is  known  to  be  ripe  by  the  disappearance  of  the  red- 
dish cast  on  the  ear,  or  what  the  English  farmers  term  red 
roan;  by  the  ears  beginning  to  droop,  and  bending  themselves 
round  against  the  stems;  and  by  the  stalks  becoming  brittle, 
and  of  a  yellowish  color.  This  is  the  particular  period  for 
cutting,  as,  if  suffered  to  stand  longer,  the  heads  break  off", 
and  the  grain  wastes  with  the  slightest  touch.  And  it  may 
be  cut  with  the  cradle,  sickle,  or  scythe,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. If  it  stands  straight,  and  is  not  too  heavy,  the 
cradle  is  to  be  preferred;  if  heavy,  or  lodged,  the  sickle  or 
scythe.  But  as  the  grain  is  yet  soft,  and  the  straw  contains 
much  moisture  when  it  ought  to  be  cut,  it  should  be  suffered 
to  become  well  dried  in  the  swath  before  it  is  bound  in 
sheaves,  or  carried  to  the  barn  or  stack.  If  cut  with  the 
cradle  or  sickle,  it  is  bound  in  sheaves;  but  the  more  com- 
mon practice  is  to  cut  the  crop  with  the  scythe,  rake  the 
ground,  and  load  it  with  the  barley  fork. 

"  Barley  improves  for  malting  by  lying  till  October  before 
it  is  threshed ;  though  it  is  often  threshed  immediately  from 
the  field.  The  great  difficulty  in  preparing  it  for  market  is, 
to  rid  it  of  the  awns.  This  may  be  done  with  flails,  after  it 
has  passed  once  through  the  fanning  mill;  and,  where  it  is 
in  great  quantities,  it  may  be  spread  from  four  to  six  inches 
upon  the  barn  floor,  and  trodden  with  horses. 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  137 

"  Produce  and  Profits.  The  average  product  in  England 
is  stated  by  Donaldson  at  thirty-two  bushels  per  acre.  The 
product  in  New  York  varies  from  fifteen  to  seventy  bushels, 
according  to  season  and  soil  ;  and  I  think  the  average  is 
somewhat  short  of  that  of  Great  Britain.  Compared  with 
wheat,  its  product  is  as  two  or  two  and  a  half  to  one;  com- 
pared with  oats,  about  equal,  provided  the  soil  is  adapted  to 
this  grain.  It  is,  however,  to  be  remembered,  that  neither 
wheat  nor  oats  are  adapted  to  a  barley  soil;  the  first  re- 
quiring a  more  stiff  and  tenacious,  and  the  latter  a  more  cold 
and  moist  location.  The  average  price  of  barley  is  at  least 
two-thirds  that  of  wheat.  Supposing  wheat,  then,  to  be  one 
dollar  and  twelve  cents  the  bushel,  and  the  product  fifteen 
bushels  per  acre,  and  barley  to  be  seventy-five  cents,  and 
the  product  of  an  acre  thirty  bushels,  and  the  expense  of  cul- 
tivation equal,  the  profits  of  the  barley  will  be  nearly  as  three 
to  two  compared  to  wheat.  Barley,  besides,  is  a  less  preca- 
rious crop,  is  subject  to  fewer  diseases,  and  has  fewer  insect 
enemies  to  encounter  than  wheat." 

A  correspondent  of  the  Bath  Agricultural  Society  writes, 
"The  last  spring  being  remarkably  dry,  I  soaked  my  seed 
barley  in  the  black  water  taken  from  a  reservoir,  which  con- 
stantly receives  the  draining  of  my  dung  heap  and  stables. 
As  the  light  grains  floated  on  the  top,  I  skimmed  them  ofl", 
and  let  the  rest  stand  twenty-four  hours.  On  taking  it  from 
the  water,  I  mixed  the  grain  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
sifted  wood  ashes,  to  make  it  spread  regularly,  and  sowed 
three  fields  with  it.  The  produce  was  sixty  bushels  per 
acre.  I  sowed  some  other  fields  with  the  same  seed  dry, 
but  the  crop,  like  those  of  my  neighbours,  was  very  poor,  not 
more  than  twenty  bushels  per  acre,  and  mixed  with  green 
corn  and  weeds,  when  harvested.  I  also  sowed  some  of  my 
seed  dry  on  one  ridge  in  each  of  my  fields,  but  the  produce 
was  very  poor,  in  comparison  of  the  other  parts  of  the  field." 


MILLET.  (Panicum  Miliaceum.)  The  stalks  and  leaves 
of  this  plant  resemble  those  of  Indian  corn,  though  much 
smaller.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet.  A 
sandy  soil  suits  it  best.  It  bears  drought  admirably  well. 
It  is  said  to  produce  as  large  a  quantity  of  grain  as  Indian 
corn,  when  cultivated  in  drills  three  feet  apart  and  six  inches 
in  the  rows;  but  owing  to  the  difficulty  in  saving  the  crop, 
on  account  of  birds,  of  its  ripening  unequally,  and  its  shelling 
12* 


< 


138  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

out,  it  is  generally  thought  best  to  sow  it  broad-cast,  and  cut 
it  when  iu  milk  for  fodder. 

Mr.  Reeder,  of  Pennsylvania,  sowed  one  peck  to  the  acre 
in  May,  and  put  in  four  acres  ;  cut  it  the  middle  of  August, 
and  dried  it  in  the  sun  two  or  three  days.  He  had  seventy- 
five  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre,  and  six  tons  of  fodder  on 
four  acres.     His  cattle  relished  it  very  well. 

It  is  stated  in  "The  Plough  Boy,"  that  millet  sowed  in 
June,  on  good  ground,  will  give  from  two  to  four  tons  of  fod- 
der, and  from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  of  seed,  equal  to  corn 
for  fattening  hogs.  It  is  cultivated  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland  as  a  fodder  crop,  and  cut  in  the  milk.  It  is  pre- 
ferred in  winter  by  neat  cattle  to  clover. 

"  The  American  Farmer  "  gives  the  following  very  flatter- 
ing account  of  this  grain.  INIillet  sown  from  the  1st  of  JNIay 
to  the  i20th  of  June  has  invariably  furnished  more  fodder 
than  could  have  been  obtained  from  grass  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances. On  the  5th  of  May,  five  bushels  were  sown  on 
four  acres;  on  the  5th  of  July  it  was  harvested,  and  esti- 
mated at  four  tons  per  acre.  It  requires  in  all  cases  fine 
tilth,  and  as  much  strength  of  soil  as  is  necessary  to  produce 
heavy  oats. 

A  crop  of  fodder  can  be  produced  if  sowed  as  late  as  the 
last  of  July. 

Mr.  N.  Davenport,  of  Milton,  Massachusetts,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  growing  a  crop  of  millet  : 

"  From  the  10th  to  the  23d  of  June,  I  sowed  about  twelve 
acres  of  millet,  at  about  sixteen  quarts  per  acre.  About  one- 
third  was  on  land  planted  the  year  before,  and  I  think  pro- 
duced nearly  three  ^;ons  per  acre;  the  other  two-thirds  was 
on  green  sward,  ploughed  and  harrowed  but  a  few  days  be- 
fore being  sown;  and  on  very  light  land,  without  any  manure 
on  either.  I  had  not  much  over  one  ton  per  acre  on  the 
green  sward,  the  land  being  so  light  that  it  did  not  bear 
more  than  two  or  three  hundred  of  hay  per  acre.  I  mowed 
my  millet  from  the  1st  to  the  12th  of  September;  and  I 
found  the  tops  of  heads  perfectly  ripe  and  fit  for  seed." 

John  Hare  Powell,  Esq.,  of  Pennsylvania,  has  given  us 
the  following  observations  on  the  culture  of  this  crop  : 

"  I  have  made  many  experiments  on  various  soils,  and  at 
different  seasons,  to  ascertain  the  product  as  well  as  the  prop- 
erties of  millet.  Upon  light  land,  in  good  condition,  it  suc- 
ceeds best.  It  requires  in  all  cases  fine  tilth,  and  as  much 
strength  of  soil  as  is  necessary  to  produce  heavy  oats.     I 


ANU    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  139 

have  not  seen,  either  in  Europe  or  America,  any  green  crop 
which  so  largely  rewards  accurate  tillage  and  plentiful  sup- 
plies of  manure,  as  the  species  of  millet  usually  grown  in 
this  and  the  adjacent  counties.  I  have  sown  it  from  the  1st 
of  May  to  the  !20th  of  June,  and  have  invariably  obtained 
more  fodder  than  could  have  been  had  from  any  grass,  under 
similar  circumstances.  In  the  autumn,  eighty  bushels  of 
caustic  lime  per  acre  were  strewed  upon  an  old  sward,  which 
was  immediatebj  ploughed,  closely  harrowed,  sown  with  rye, 
and  rolled.  The  rye  was  depastured  in  the  winter  and  suc- 
ceeding spring.  Early  in  April  the  land  was  ploughed 
again;  the  lime  and  decomposed  vegetable  matter  was  thus 
returned  to  the  surface.  About  three  weeks  after,  it  was 
harrowed,  to  destroy  weeds;  early  in  May  it  was  again  har- 
rowed for  the  same  purpose;  within  a  fortnight  it  was  stirred 
with  Beatson's  scarifier  to  the  depth  of  nine  inches,  harrow- 
ed, sown  with  millet,  and  rolled.  The  crop  was  fairly  es- 
timated at  three  tons  per  acre.  After  the  millet  was  cut, 
the  field  was  stirred,  and  repeatedly  harrowed,  to  destroy  the 
after  growth  of  noxious  plants.  I  intend  to  again  sow  rye, 
not  only  to  obtain  pasturage,  but  to  pi-otect  the  soil  from  the 
exhalations  of  the  sun.  In  the  succeeding  spring,  a  slight 
dressing  of  fresh  manure  was  ploughed  under;  the  scarifier, 
roller,  and  harrow,  were  used  at  intervals  as  before.  On  the 
5th  of  May,  five  bushels  of  millet  seeds  were  sown  on  four 
acres;  on  the  5th  of  July  the  crop  was  hauled,  and  estimat- 
ed at  four  tons  per  acre.  I  have  obtained  this  season  forty 
tons  from  sixteen  acres,  of  which  four  only  had  been  manur- 
ed; the  remainder  could  not  have  borne  a  good  wheat  crop. 
One  of  the  loads  was  weighed;  an  account  of  them  was 
regularly  kept;  their  size  was  made  as  nearly  equal  as  pos- 
sible. I  have  generally  used  a  large  quantity  of  seed,  as 
not  more  than  two-thirds  of  that  which  is  usually  sown  will 
vegetate.  Whilst  my  oxen  consumed  millet  in  its  green 
state,  they  performed  their  work  with  more  spirit  and  vigor 
than  they  had  done  before,  or  have  shown  since,  except 
when  fed  with  grain.  My  cattle,  of  all  ages,  prefer  it  to 
both  red  and  the  best  white  clover,  meadow,  or  timothy  hay 
"  I  am  not  disposed  to  cultivate  it  as  a  farinaceous  crop, 
since  I  have  found  great  difiiculty  in  protecting  it  from  the 
ravages  of  immense  flocks  of  birds,  which  it  attracts,  and  in 
securing  it  sufficiently  early  to  prevent  a  large  part  of  the 
grain  from  being  left  on  the  ground.  The  seeds  on  the  up- 
per parts  of  the  stalks  generally  ripen  and  fall  before  those 


140  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

below  have  been  filled.  I  therefore  invariably  cut  it  when 
the  upper  parts  of  most  of  the  heads  contain  seeds  which 
are  hard.  In  this  stage  it  affords  fodder  more  nutritious, 
and  more  easily  made,  than  any  sort  of  hay.  The  expense 
of  tilling  the  land,  is  not  so  great  as  at  first  view  would  ap- 
pear. A  yoke  of  good  oxen  can  scarify  three  acres  and  a 
half,  without  difficulty,  in  one  day.  I  would  recommend 
millet,  not  merely  for  its  value  as  a  food,  but  for  the  means 
it  affords  of  making  clean  the  land,  without  summer  fallows, 
or  drill  crops.  The  ingenious  arguments  which  have  been 
adduced,  to  prove  that  deep  stirring  between  growing  crops 
is  advantageous  to  them  and  the  soil,  are  founded  upon 
English  experience,  properly  directed  by  close  attention  to 
the  effects  of  a  moist  climate.  Some  of  our  writers  have 
profoundly  asserted,  that  as  '  dew  drops  '  are  found  on  the 
under  leaves  of  plants  after  deep  stirring  has  been  given  in 
a  time  of  great  drought,  the  practice  is  sound.  I  should 
suggest,  that  moisture  had  better  be  at  such  times  conveyed 
to  the  roots,  than  be  exhaled  by  the  sun,  or  placed  on  the 
leaves  until  his  rays  shall  have  exhausted  it  all.  The  valua- 
ble parts  of  most  manures  readily  assume  the  gaseous  form; 
every  deep  stirring,  to  a  certain  extent,  in  hot  weather, 
therefore,  impoverishes  the  soil.  Deep  ploughing,  sA  proper 
seasons,  is,  I  conceive,  the  basis  of  all  good  farming.  Such 
crops  as  shall  enable  the  husbandman  to  extirpate  weeds, 
and  obtain  large  supplies  of  fodder,  without  much  exhaus- 
tion, should  be  the  great  objects  for  his  aim.  I  would  pro- 
pose that  a  foul  sward  receive  its  proper  quantity  of  quick- 
lime, which  should  be  spread  and  ploughed  under,  in  its 
caustic  state,  in  the  early  part  of  September;  that  the  field 
be  harrowed  sufliciently;  sown  with  rye  at  the  rate  of  two 
bushels  per  acre,  as  early  as  possible;  that  it  be  depastured 
late  in  the  autumn  and  early  in  the  spring;  that  in  May  it 
be  again  ploughed,  three  inches  deeper  than  before;  that  it 
be  harrowed,  and  left  until  the  small  weeds  begin  to  appear. 
Early  in  June  millet  should  be  sown;  in  August  the  crop 
can  be  removed,  after  the  labors  of  the  general  harvest. 
The  field  should  be  slightly  stirred  with  the  scarifier,  oc- 
casionally harrowed,  and  left  throughout  September,  for  the 
destruction  of  weeds,  as  before.  In  October  it  may  be 
manured,  and  sown  with  wheat,  or  left  for  a  crop  of  Indian 
corn." 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  141 

BUCKWHEAT.  (Poli/gonum.)  In  light  lands  this  crop 
may  be  raised  to  advantage.  In  this  climate  it  should  not 
be  sown  till  after  the  middle  of  May.  One  bushel  is  seed 
enough  for  an  acre,  if  sown  broad-cast,  as  is  usual;  but  if 
sown  in  drills,  less  than  half  that  quantity  is  sufficient.  In 
the  State  of  New  York,  farmers  sow  it  in  August  with  win- 
ter wheat.  It  affords  them  a  ripe  crop  in  the  fall,  without 
injuring  the  crop  of  wheat,  which  grows  with  and  succeeds 
it. 

Buckwheat  is  harvested  by  mowing,  in  the  manner  of 
barley.  After  it  is  mown  it  should  be  several  days  before  it 
is  housed.  It  is  in  no  danger  of  the  seeds  falling,  nor  does 
it  suffer  much  by  wet.  From  its  great  succulency  it  is  lia- 
ble to  heat  in  a  mow,  on  which  account  it  is  better  to  put  it 
into  small  stacks  of  five  or  six  loads  each,  than  either  a  large 
one,  or  in  a  barn. 

Mr.  Loudon  observes,  "that  the  use  of  the  grain  of  buck- 
wheat in  Great  Britain  is  almost  entirely  for  feeding  poultry, 
pigeons,  and  swine.  It  may  also  be  given  to  horses,  which 
are  said  to  thrive  well  upon  it;  but  the  author  of  "  The  New 
Farmer's  Calendar,"  says  he  thinks  he  has  seen  it  produce 
a  stupefying  effect.  Young  says,  that  "  a  bushel  of  buck- 
wheat goes  farther  than  two  bushels  of  oats,  and  mixed  with 
at  least  four  times  as  much  bran,  will  be  found  sufficient  for 
a  horse  a  week.  Eight  bushels  of  buckwheat  meal  will  go  • 
as  far  as  twelve  bushels  of  barley  meal." 

The  meal  of  buckwheat  is  made  into  thin  cakes,  called 
crumpets,  in  Italy,  and  in  some  parts  of  England.  Buck- 
wheat pancakes  are  likewise  common,  and  thought  to  be 
wholesome  as  well  as  palatable,  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Buckwheat  blossoms  afford  rich  food  for  bees,  and 
are  useful  as  well  from,  the  quantity  of  honey  which  they 
enable  the  bees  to  make,  as  the  long  time  they  continue 
without  fading  or  ceasing  to  be  fragrant.  On  this  account 
the  buckwheat  plant  is  highly  prized  in  France  and  Ger- 
many; and  Du  Hamel  advises  bee-keepers  to  carry  their 
hives  to  fields  of  this  crop  in  autumn,  as  well  as  to  heath 
lands. 

"The  Farmer's  Assistant,"  says,  "We  cannot  recom- 
mend the  culture  of  buckwheat  on  lands  which  are  suitable 
for  more  valuable  crops;  but  on  light,  smooth  lands,  particu- 
larly, the  farmer  may  find  his  account  in  keeping  a  field  of  a 
few  acres  for  a  yearly  crop  of  buckwheat,  as  well  for  family 
use  as  for  assisting  in  fattening  his  swine,  Ste.   A  bushel  of 


142  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

gypsum  to  the  acre,  or  perhaps  less,  applied  yearly  to  the 

ground,   would  be  found  to  keep  it   rich  enough  for  good 
crops." 


RICE.  [Oriza  Saliva.)  This  is  a  genus  of  plants,  con- 
sisting of  several  species,  which,  however,  may  be  divided 
into  two  varieties,  viz.  mountain  rice,  which  grows  in  dry, 
elevated  soils,  and  marsh  rice,  sown  in  low  swampy  districts. 
The  former  kind  was  raised  by  Mr.  Bordley,  on  dry,  sandy 
land,  near  Annapolis,  in  Maryland.  It  is  perhaps  possible 
that  this  plant  may  be  gradually  introduced  into  the  north- 
ern States,  and  made  to  grow  in  dry  and  elevated  ground. 
This  is  mucli  to  be  desired,  as  rice  is  the  cheapest  nutriment 
known,  containing,  it  is  said,  ninety-six  parts  in  a  hundred 
of  nutritive  matter. 

"The  Farmer's  Assistant,"  gives  the  following  directions 
for  the  culture  of  this  plant  :  "  Early  in  the  spring,  the 
ground  is  to  be  fitted  with  the  plough  for  the  reception  of 
the  seed,  which  is  to  be  drilled  in,  in  rov.s,  at  the  distance 
of  about  twenty-seven  inches  apart.  When  the  young  plants 
have  acquired  a  suitable  height,  the  weeds  are  to  be  eradi- 
cated from  the  crop  with  tlie  plough,  or  with  a  small  harrow 
to  be  guided  by  handles  behind,  run  twice  between  tlie 
rows,  and  the  work  is  then  completed  by  the  hoe,  and  per- 
haps some  hand-weeding. 

"  In  due  season  after  this,  the  water  is  to  be  occasionally 
let  on  the  ground,  for  the  purpose  of  killing  the  weeds  and 
grass;  and  then  to  be  let  off  again,  in  order  that  the  crop 
may  have  such  farther  ploughing  and  hoeing  as  may  be 
found  necessary.  If  water  is  not  used,  the  growing  crop  is 
to  be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  like  other  hoed  crops,  till  the 
ground  becomes  sufficiently  shaded  to  prevent  farther  trou- 
ble from  them. 

"  The  grain  will  be  found  sufficiently  ripened  while  the 
stalks  are  still  green;  and  on  this  account  they  are  valuable 
as  a  substitute  for  hay.  If  the  crop  be  flooded,  the  water  is 
to  be  let  off  in  due  season,  so  that  the  ground  can  be  laid 
sufficiently  dry  before  harvesting.  With  regard  to  this  ope- 
ration, we  will  merely  observe,  that  he  who  understands  the 
manner  of  harvesting  wheat,  rye,  barley,  or  oats,  need  be  at 
no  loss  as  to  the  best  method  of  gathering  this  crop;  remem- 
bering, however,  that  the  straw  should  be  sufficiently  dried 
before  threshing  or  stowing  the  crop  away." 


AND  RURAL  r,(;ON0MIST.  143 

HOPS.  The  following  was  written  by  William  Blan- 
chard,  Jun.  Esq.,  and  first  published  in  "  The  New  England 
Farmer." 

"The  hop  is  a  native  plant.  It  is  found  growing  sponta- 
neously on  the  banks  and  intervals  of  many  of  our  large 
rivers.  There  are  several  distinct  species,  all  bearing  a 
near  affinity  to  each  other;  (I  have  noticed  five.)  At  present 
they  are  cultivated  together,  promiscuously ;  no  preference 
having  been  given  to  any  particular  one  of  them  by  the 
brewer. 

"  The  soil  best  calculated  for  the  production  of  hops,  is 
a  sandy  loam,  rather  low  and  moist.  I  am  led  to  this  con- 
clusion from  my  own  observation,  and  from  finding  the  lands 
which  produce  them  naturally  to  be  of  this  kind.  Yet,  I 
have  seen  fine  crops  raised  on  very  different  soils. 

"  I  should  recommend  the  following  mode  of  preparing 
the  land  and  managing  the  crop.  In  the  fall  (October) 
plough  the  land  deep,  nine  or  ten  inches.  In  the  spring  fol- 
lowing, pass  a  heavy,  sharp,  iron-toothed  harrow  over  the 
land,  in  the  same  direction  it  was  ploughed;  after  which, 
spread  your  manure  evenly  over  the  same,  si.xteen  cords  per 
acre,  and  more  if  the  land  be  much  reduced;  then  cross- 
plough  the  land  nearly  the  same  depth,  and  furrow  it  as  for 
planting  corn,  the  furrows  to  be  at  least  four  feet  apart. 

"It  is  customary  to  plant  corn  or  potatoes  with  the  hops; 
(I  should  prefer  potatoes.)  Plant  every  other  hill  in  every 
other  row  with  hops,  thus  placing  the  hop  hills  at  least  eight 
feet  apart.  Put  four  cuttings  from  the  running  roots,  about 
eight  inches  in  length,  into  each  hill,  and  cover  them  the 
common  depth  of  potatoes. 

"  Many  yards  have  been  much  injured  by  being  planted 
too  closely.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  have  the  hills  so  far 
distant  from  each  other  as  to  admit  a  free  current  of  air  (o 
pass  through  the  yard. 

"  All  the  attention  requisite  the  first  season  after  the  hops 
are  planted,  is  to  keep  them  clean  from  weeds,  which  is  easi- 
ly done  when  hoeing  the  crop  planted  amongst  them.  In 
the  fall,  (October,)  to  prevent  their  being  injured  by  the 
hard  frosts  of  winter,  carry  on  and  lay  out  of  your  cart  one 
shovelful  of  compost  manure  on  the  top  of  each  hill ;  ma- 
nure from  the  hogsty  I  should  prefer. 

"  In  each  following  spring,  before  the  hops  are  opened, 
as  it  is  termed,  spread  evenly  over  the  yard  about  eisht 
cords  of  manure  per  acre,  (coarse,  strawy  manure  I  should 


144  THE   C;OMPLETE   FARMER 

prefer,  as  it  will  have  a  tendency  to  keep  the  land  loose,) 
and  plough  the  field  both  ways  at  the  first  hoeing.  They 
require  but  three  hoeings  in  a  season,  unless  necessary  to 
subdue  the  weeds;  the  last  of  which  should  be  performed 
when  the  hops  are  in  full  blossom,  (about  the  beginning  of 
August.) 

"After  the  first  crop,  it  is  necessary  to  open  the  hops, 
every  spring,  by  the  middle  of  May;  which  is  performed  by 
making  four  furrows  between  the  rows,  turning  the  furrows 
from  the  hills,  and  running  the  plough  as  near  to  the  same 
as  possible  without  injuring  the  main  roots.  Then  the  earth 
is  removed  from  the  roots  with  a  hoe,  all  the  running  roots 
cut  in,  with  a  sharp  knife,  within  two  inches  of  the  main 
roots;  the  tops  of  the  main  roots  must  also  be  cut  in,  and 
then  the  hills  covered  with  earth  about  two  inches  deep. 

"The  next  thing  necessary  to  be  done  is  to  set  the  poles. 
This  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  hop-vines  begin  to  make 
their  appearance.  By  so  doing,  much  time  and  labor  will 
be  saved  in  tying  up  the  vines  to  the  poles,  as  many  of  the 
vines  will  naturally  take  to  the  poles.  There  should  not  be 
to  exceed  two  vines  to  one  pole,  nor  to  exceed  two  poles  to 
one  hill,  nor  any  pole  to  exceed  sixteen  feet  in  height. 
Many  yards  have  been  very  much  injured  by  letting  a  great- 
er number  of  vines  grow  on  one  pole,  and  almost  destroyed 
by  over-poling. 

"Very  much  depends  on  paying  due  attention,  in  the 
spring,  to  select  the  most  thrifty  vines,  and  training  them  to 
the  poles,  which  is  done  by  fastening  them  to  the  poles  with 
a  piece  of  yarn,  slightly  twisted  together  with  the  thumb  and 
finger. 

"  It  will  be  necessary  to  inspect  your  hop-yard  frequently, 
until  the  hops  begin  to  blossom,  and  'tie  up  the  vines,'  as 
it  is  termed,  as  they  are  subject  to  be  blown  off  the  poles  by 
every  high  wind. 

"  As  soon  as  the  hops  are  ripe,  which  is  about  the  begin- 
ning of  September,  they  must  be  immediately  gathered,  or 
the  crop  is  lost.  The  quality  of  the  hops  depends  consid- 
erably on  their  being  picked  clean  from  leaves  and  stems. 
The  labor  of  picking  or  gathering  the  hops  may  be  well  per- 
formed by  women  and  children,  having  one  man  to  a  bin  to 
handle  the  poles  and  to  inspect  the  pickers.  The  bin  is  a 
wooden  box,  about  nine  feet  long,  three  feet  wide,  and  two 
and  a  half  feet  high,  made  of  thin  pine  boards,  that  it  may 
be  easily  moved  over  the  yard,  acro.ss  which  the  poles  are 


AND   RITRAI,   ECONOMIST.  145 

laid,  and  into  which  the  hops  are  picked  by  hand.  Care 
should  be  taken,  when  gathering  the  hops,  to  cut  the  vines 
two  feet  from  the  ground,  that  the  roots  may  not  be  injured 
by  bleeding. 

"  The  most  important  part  in  the  management  of  hops  is 
the  curing  or  drying  them.  Here  I  would  note,  that  hops 
always  grow  first  sort,  and  that  all  second  sort  and  refuse 
hops  are  made  so  by  unfortunate  or  unskilful  management. 

"  Much  depends  on  having  a  well-constructed  kiln.  For 
the  convenience  of  putting  the  hops  on  the  kiln,  the  side  of 
a  hill  is  generally  chosen  for  its  situation.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  it  be  a  dry  situation.  The  kiln  should  be  dug  out 
the  same  bigness  at  the  bottom  as  at  the  top  ;  the  side  walls 
laid  up  perpendicularly,  and  filled  in  solid  with  stone,  to  give 
it  a  tunnel  form.  Twelve  feet  square  at  the  top,  two  feet 
square  at  the  bottom,  and  at  least  eight  feet  deep,  is  deemed 
a  convenient  size.  On  the  top  of  the  walls  sills  are  laid, 
having  joists  let  into  them  in  like  manner  as  for  laying  a 
floor  ;  on  which  laths,  about  one  and  a  half  inches  wide,  are 
nailed,  leaving  open  spaces  between  them  three-fourths  of 
an  inch,  over  which  a  thin  linen  cloth  is  spread  and  nailed 
at  the  edges  to  the  sills.  A  board  about  twelve  inches  wide 
is  set  up  on  each  side  of  the  kiln,  on  the  inner  edge  of  the 
sill,  to  form  a  bin  to  receive  the  hops.  The  larger  the  stones 
made  use  of  in  the  construction  of  the  kiln,  the  better  ;  as 
it  will  give  a  more  steady  and  dense  heat.  The  inside  of 
the  kiln  should  be  well  plastered  with  mortar  to  make  it 
completely  air-tight.  Charcoal  (that  made  from  yellow  birch 
or  maple  I  should  prefer)  is  the  only  fuel  proper  to  be  used 
in  drying  hops.  The  kiln  should  be  well  heated  before  any 
hops  are  put  on,  and  carefully  attended,  to  keep  a  steady  and 
regular  heat. 

"Fifty  pounds  of  hops,  when  dried,  is  the  largest  quanti- 
ty that  should  be  dried  at  one  time,  on  a  kiln  of  this  size  ; 
and  unless  absolutely  necessary  to  put  on  that  quantity,  a 
less  would  dry  better.  The  green  hops  should  be  spread  as 
evenly  and  as  light  as  possible  over  the  kiln.  The  fire  at 
first  should  be  moderate,  but  it  may  be  increased  as  the  hops 
dry  and  the  steam  is  evaporated. 

"  Hops  should  not  remain  long  in  the  bin  or  bag  after  they 
are  picked,  as  they  will  very  soon  heat  and  become  insipid. 
The  hops  should  not  be  stirred  on  the  kiln  until  they  are 
completely  and  fully  dried.  Then  they  should  be  removed 
from  the  kiln  into  a  dry  room,  and  laid  in  a  heap,  and  there 
13 


146  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

remain,  unmoved  and  unstirred,  until  bagged,  which  is  done 
with  a  screw,  having  a  box  made  of  plank,  the  size  the  43ag 
is  wished,  into  which  the  cloth  is  laid,  and  the  hops  screwed 
into  the  box,  which  is  so  constructed  that  the  sides  may  be 
removed,  and  the  bag  sewed  together  while  in  the  press. 

"The  hops,  after  laying  a  kw  days,  will  gather  a  partial 
moisture,  called  a  sweat.  The  sweat  will  probably  begin  to 
subside  in  about  eight  days,  at  which  time,  and  before  the 
sweat  is  off,  they  ought  to  be  bagged  in  clear  dry  weather. 
As  the  exact  time  when  the  hops  will  begin  to  sweat,  and 
when  the  sweat  will  begin  to  subside  or  dry  off,  (the  proper 
time  to  bag  them,)  will  vary  with  the  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere, it  will  be  necessary  to  examine  the  hops  from  day  to 
day,  which  is  easily  done  by  taking  some  of  them  from  the 
centre  of  the  heap  with  your  hand.  If  on  examination  you 
find  the  hops  to  be  very  damp,  and  their  color  altering,  which 
will  be  the  case  if  they  were  not  completely  dried  on  the 
kiln,  and  not  otherwise,  you  must  overhaul  them  and  dry 
them  in  the  air. 

"The  most  convenient  size  for  a  bag  of  hops,  to  handle 
and  transport,  is  about  five  feet  in  length,  and  to  contain 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  The  best  bagging  is 
coarse,  strong  tow  cloth,  of  our  domestic  manufacturing;  nest 
to  that,  Russia  hemp  bagging.  The  East  India  sugar  and 
gunny  bags,  so  called,  ought  never  to  be  used.  The  sugar 
bags  are  of  an  unreasonable  weight,  and  both  they  and  the 
gunny  bags  are  of  no  value  to  the  brewer  ;  whereas  the 
other  bags  are  worth  prime  cost. 

"  It  is  now  common  for  those  who  have  entered  consider- 
ably into  the  cultivation  of  hops,  to  build  houses  over  their 
kilns,  which,  in  wet  weather,  are  very  convenient  ;  other- 
wise, a  kiln  in  the  open  air  would  be  preferable.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  have  these  buildings  well  ventilated  with  doors  and 
windows  ;  and  to  have  them  kept  open  night  and  day,  ex- 
cept in  wet  weather,  and  then  shut  those  only  which  are 
necessary  to  keep  out  the  rain.  If  a  ventilator  was  put  in 
the  I'oof  of  the  building,  directly  over  the  centre  of  the  kiln, 
about  six  feet  square,  built  like  those  in  breweries  and  dis- 
tilleries, they  would  be  found  very  advantageous.  I  have 
seen  many  lots  of  hops  much  injured  both  iii  color  and  flavor 
by  being  dried  in  close  buildings. 

"Where  the  houses  over  the  kilns  are  built  large,  for  the 
purpose  of  storing  the  hops  as  they  are  dried,  which  is  a 
great  saving  of  labor,  a  close  partition  should  be  made  be- 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  147 

tween  the  kilns  and  the  room  in  which  the  hops  are  stored, 
to  prevent  the  damp  steam  from  the  kilns  coming  to  them,  as 
it  will  color  them,  and  injure  their  flavor  and  quality  very 
much. 

"  I  expect  that  many  of  our  farmers  will  object  to  the 
mode  of  manuring  hops  which  I  have  recommended,  their 
common  practice  being  to  put  the  manure  in  the  hills  when 
they  plant  the  hops,  and  afterwards  to  apply  the  manure  on 
the  hills  at  the  first  and  second  hoeings.  I  find  the  hop- 
roots  are  very  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  worms,  and  to  de- 
cay. My  opinion  is,  that  the  manure  in  the  hill  has  a  ten- 
dency to  produce  the  worms,  and  its  fermentation  at  their 
roots  to  cause  their  decay  ;  and  that  the  crop  is  not  more,  if 
as  abundant,  as  when  manured  in  the  manner  I  have  recom- 
mended ;  and,  farther,  that  a  hop-yard  manured  in  this 
manner  will  continue  in  a  healthy  state  for  many  years. 

"I  also  expect  the  quantity  of  manure  I  have  recommend- 
ed will  be  objected  to  by  many,  it  being  the  commonly 
received  opinion,  that  hops  should  have  little  or  no  manure. 
I  find  it  a  general  complaint  amongst  the  farmers  where  hops 
have  been  cultivated  many  years,  that  the  quantity  raised 
per  acre  does  not  exceed  the  one  half  raised  by  their  ances- 
tors on  the  same  land  ;  inferring  that  the  '  hops  are  running 
out,'  as  it  is  termed,  and  cannot  now  be  cultivated  to  ad- 
vantage. Hops,  in  common  with  all  sorts  of  grain  and  veg- 
etables, flourish  best  and  produce  the  finest  crops  when 
cultivated  on  new  lands,  which  require  little  or  no  manure  ; 
and  such  were  the  lands  which  their  ancestors  cultivated. 
The  same  complaint,  I  presume,  would  be  made  against  all 
sorts  of  grain  and  vegetables,  if  raised  with  little  or  no 
manure,  on  lands  that  have  long  been  cultivated." 


PEA.  (Pisum  Sativum.)  The  pea  is  a  nardy  annual,  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  cultivated  in  Great  Britain 
from  time  immemorial,  and  in  this  country  from  its  first  set- 
tlement. 

Times  of  Soioing.  ' '  The  dwarfs  are  generally  employed 
in  hotbed  culture,  which,  however,  succeeds  badly,  and  is 
neither  worth  preserving  nor  describing,  and  the  less  so,  as 
early  crops  may  be  more  certainly  had  by  sowing  in  the  fall, 
in  sheltered  situations,  and  covering  during  the  winter  with 
a  layer  of  leaves,  and  another  of  long  stable-litter,  loosely 


148  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

applied,  to  keep  the  leaves  in  their  places.  After  the  earth 
takes  a  temperature  favorable  to  vegetation,  your  pea  sow- 
ings should  be  made  once  a  fortnight,  to  keep  up  a  regular 
and  successive  supply."  —  ^irmst)'ong. 

Quantity  of  Seed.  "Of  the  small,  early  kinds,  one  pint 
will  sow  a  row  of  twenty  yards  ;  for  the  larger  sorts,  for 
main  crops,  the  same  measure  will  sow  a  row  of  thirty-three 
yards." 

Process  in  Sowing.  "  For  early  sorts,  make  the  drills  one 
inch  and  a  half  deep  ;  and  let  parallel  drills  be  two  feet  and 
a  half,  three,  or  four  feet  asunder.  Peas  that  are  to  grow 
without  sticks  require  the  least  room.  For  summer  crops 
and  large  sorts,  make  the  drills  two  inches  deep,  and  four, 
five,  or  six  feet  asunder.  As  to  the  distances  along  the  drill, 
distribute  the  peas  according  to  their  size  and  the  season  ; 
the  frame,  three  in  the  space  of  an  inch  ;  the  Charltons, 
Hotspur,  and  dwarf  marrowfat,  two  in  an  inch  ;  the  Prus- 
sian blue  and  middle-sized  sorts,  three  in  two  inches  ;  the 
large  marrowfat  and  Knight's,  a  full  inch  apart;  the  moratto, 
rouncivals,  and  most  larger  sorts,  an  inch  and  a  half  apart  ; 
and  the  Patagonian,  two  inches." 

Soil  aiid  Situatiori.  "  The  soil  should  be  moderately  rich, 
and  the  deeper  and  stronger  for  the  lofty  growers.  Peas 
are  not  assisted,  but  hurt,  by  unreduced  dung  recently  turned 
in.  A  fresh,  sandy  loam,  or  road-stuff,  and  a  little  decom- 
posed vegetable  matter,  is  the  best  manure.  The  soil  for 
the  early  crops  should  be  very  dry,  and  rendered  so,  where 
the  ground  is  moist,  by  mixing  sand  with  the  earth  of  the 
drills."  —  Loudon. 

Armstrong  says,  "  A  loose  and  warm  soil  is  most  favor- 
able to  this  vegetable,  which,  by  the  way,  is  neither  improv- 
ed in  quality  nor  quantity  by  stable  manure.  The  soil  of 
Clichy,  and  of  Point  de  Jour  des  Colombe,  kc,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris,  is  a  pure  sand,  principally  devoted 
to  pea  crops,  and  yielding  these  most  abundantly  without  the 
application  of  dung,  new  or  old." 

Subsequent  Culture.  "As  the  plants  rise  from  half  an 
inch  high  to  two  or  three  inches,  begin  to  draw  earth  to  the 
stems,  doing  this  when  the  ground  is  in  a  dry  state,  and 
earthing  gradually  higher  as  the  stems  ascend.  At  the  same 
time,  Math  the  hoe,  loosen  the  ground  between  the  young 
plants,  and  cut  down  rising  weeds.  Early  crops  should  be 
protected  during  hard  frosts  by  dry  straw  or  other  light  lit- 
ter, laid  upon  sticks  or  brushwood  ;   but   remove  the   cover- 


AND  RURAL  ECONOiMIST.  149 

ing  as  soon  as  the  weather  turns  mild.  If,  in  April,  May, 
and  the  course  of  the  summer,  dry  weather  occurs,  watering 
will  be  necessary,  especially  to  plants  in  blossom  and  swell- 
ing the  fruit  ;  and  this  trouble  will  be  repaid  in  the  produce. 
Rows  partly  cut  off  may  be  made  up  by  transplanting.  In 
dry  weather,  water,  and  in  hot  weather,  shade,  until  the 
plants  strike.  All  peas  fruit  better  for  sticking,  and  continue 
longer  productive,  especially  the  larger  sorts.  Stick  the 
plants  when  from  six  to  twelve  inches  high,  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  vine.  Provide  branchy  sticks  of  such  a  height  as 
the  sort  will  require  ;  for  the  frame  and  Leadman's  dwarf, 
three  feet  high  ;  for  the  Charlton  and  middle-sized,  four  or 
five  feet  ;  for  the  marrowfat  and  larger  kinds,  six  or  eight 
feet  ;  for  the  rouncival,  and  for  Knight's  marrow-pea,  nine 
or  ten  feet.  Place  a  row  of  sticks  to  each  line  of  peas,  on 
the  most  sunny  side,  east  or  south,  that  the  attraction  of  the 
sun  may  incline  the  plants  towards  the  sticks.  Place  about 
half  the  number  on  the  opposite  side,  and  let  both  rows 
stand  rather  wider  at  top  than  at  the  ground.  Some 
gardeners  stop  the  leading  shoot  of  the  most  early  crop 
when  in  blossom  ;  a  device  which  accelerates  the  setting 
and  maturity  of  the  fruit. 

To  forward  an  early  Crop.  "  Sow  or  plant  in  lines  from 
east  to  west,  and  stick  a  row  of  spruce-fir  [or  other  ever- 
green] branches  along  the  north  side  of  every  row,  and  slop- 
ing so  as  to  bend  over  the  plants,  at  one  foot  or  eighteen 
inches  from  the  ground.  As  the  plants  advance  in  height, 
vary  the  position  of  the  branches,  so  as  they  may  always 
protect  them  from  perpendicular  cold  or  rain,  and  yet  leave 
them  open  to  the  full  influence  of  the  spring  sun.  Some 
cover,  during  nights  and  in  severe  weather,  with  two  boards, 
nailed  together  lengthwise,  at  right  angles,  which  forms  a 
very  secure  and  easily-managed  covering,  but  excludes 
light.  A  better  plan  would  be  to  glaze  one  of  the  sides,  to 
be  kept  to  the  south,  and  to  manage  such  row-glasses,  as 
they  might  be  called,  when  over  peas,  beans,  spinage,  &c., 
as  hand-glasses  are  managed  when  over  cauliflower;  that  is, 
to  take  them  off"  in  fine  weather,  or  raise  them  constantly  or 
occasionally  by  brickbats,  or  other  props,  as  the  weather 
and  the  state  of  the  crop  might  require."  —  Loudon. 

Management  of  a   late    Crop.     The  best   variety  for  this 
purpose  is  Knight's  marrow-pea,  which  may  be  sown  at  in- 
tervals of  ten  days  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  June. 
"The  ground  is  dug  over  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  spaces 
13* 


150  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

to  be  occupied  by  the  future  rows  of  peas  are  well  soaked 
with  water.  The  mould  upon  each  side  is  then  collected,  so 
as  to  form  ridges  seven  or  eight  inches  above  the  previous 
level  of  the  ground,  and  these  ridges  are  well  watered.  The 
seeds  are  now  sown  in  single  rows,  along  the  tops  of  the 
ridges.  The  plants  grow  vigorously,  owing  to  the  depth  of 
soil  and  abundant  moisture.  If  dry  weather  at  any  time  set 
in,  water  is  applied  profusely  once  a  week.  In  this  way, 
the  plants  continue  green  and  vigorous,  resisting  mildew, 
and  yielding  fruit  till  subdued  by  frost." —  Hort.  Trans. 
Vol.  II. 

To  save  Seed.  "  Like  other  vegetables,  the  pea  is  sus- 
ceptible of  considerable  improvement,  and  by  the  simple 
means  of  marking  the  finest  plants  of  each  variety,  and 
keeping  them  for  seed.  Wilson's  frame  and  the  Knight  pea 
have  been  formed  in  this  way,  and  afford  sufficient  proof  of 
the  wonders  produced  by  a  very  small  degree  of  observation 
and  care."  —  Armstrong. 

Field-cuUure  of  the  Pea.  The  most  common  mode  of 
sowing  peas  is  broad-cast;  but  the  advantages  of  the  row 
culture,  in  a  crop  so  early  committed  to  the  ground,  must 
be  obvious.  Loudon  says,  "  In  Kent,  where  immense  quan- 
tities of  peas  are  raised,  both  for  gathering  green  and  for 
selling  ripe  to  the  seedsmen,  they  are  generally  sown  in 
rows  from  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  asunder,  according 
to  the  kind,  and  well  cultivated  between.  Peas  laid  a  foot 
below  the  surface  will  vegetate  ;  but  the  most  approved 
depth  is  six  inches  in  light  soil,  and  four  inches  in  clay  soil; 
for  which  reason  they  ought  to  be  sown  under  furrow  when 
the  ploughing  is  delayed  till  spring.  Of  all  grain,  beans  ex- 
cepted, they  are  in  the  least  danger  of  being  buried  too 
deep."  —  Loudon. 

Deane  observed,  that  "  for  field  peas,  land  that  is  newly 
ploughed  out  of  sward  is  generally  accounted  best  ;  and 
land  which  is  high  and  dry,  and  has  not  been  much  dunged. 
A  light,  loamy  soil,  is  most  suitable  for  them  ;  and  if  it 
abound  with  slaty  stones,  it  is  the  better.  But  they  will  do 
in  any  dry  soil.  The  manures  that  suit  peas  best  are  marl 
and  lime.  Our  farmers  do  not  commonly  allow  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  seed  for  peas,  in  broad-cast  sowing.  When  peas 
are  sowed  thin,  the  plants  will  lie  on  the  ground,  and  per- 
haps rot;  when  they  are  thick,  the  plants  will  hold  each 
other  up  with  their  tendrils,  forming  a  continued  web,  and 
will  have  more  benefit  of  the  air." 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  151 

Insects  and  Diseases.  "The  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
Repository,"  for  June,  1822,  contains  some  remarks  of  the 
Hon.  T.  Pickering,  relative  to  a  bug  or  fly,  {bruchus  pisi,) 
which  preys  on  the  pea,  in  which  he  observes,  that  an 
effectual  remedy  for  this  evil  is  late  soioing;  but  the  hot  sun 
of  June  will  so  pinch  the  vines  of  the  late  sown  peas,  that 
the  crop  will  be  small,  unless  the  land  be  moist  as  well  as 
rich.  He  then  details  some  experiments,  by  which  he  con- 
.. eludes,  that  this  insect  is  limited  to  a  certain  period  for 
depositing  its  eggs;  and  if  the  tender  pods  are  not  found  till 
that  period  has  passed,  the  peas  will  be  free  from  bugs. 
Colonel  Worthington,  of  Rensellaer  county.  New  York, 
"  sowed  his  peas  on  the  10th  of  June,  six  years  in  succes- 
sion, and  a  bug  has  never  been  seen  in  his  peas;  whereas 
his  neighbours,  who  have  not  adopted  this  practice,  have 
scarcely  a  pea  without  a  bug  in  it.  He  supposes  the  season 
for  depositing  the  egg  of  the  pea-bug  is  passed  before  the 
peas  are  in  flower." —  Memoirs  of  JVeiv  York  Board  of 
Agriculture,  Vol.  II.  p.  23.  "  The  only  insect  that  com- 
monly injures  our  peas,  is  a  small  brown  bug  or  fly,  the  egg 
[or  larv^]  of  which  is  deposited  in  them  when  they  are 
young,  and  the  pods  easily  perforated.  The  insect  does  not 
come  put  of  its  nest  till  he  is  furnished  with  short  wings. 
They  diminish  the  peas  in  which  they  lodge  nearly  one  half, 
and  their  leavings  are  fit  only  for  the  food  of  swine.  The 
bugs,  however,  will  be  all  gone  out  if  you  keep  them  to  the 
following  autumn.  But  they  who  cat  buggy  peas  the  winter 
after  they  are  raised,  must  run  the  venture  of  eating  the 
insects."  —  Deane's  JVciv  England  Farmer. 

The  same  writer  recommends,  when  seed  peas  are  known 
or  suspected  to  contain  insects,  to  scald  them  a  quarter  of  a 
minute  in  boiling  water,  spread  them  about,  and  sow  them 
without  delay.  If  any  of  the  bugs  should  be  in  the  peas, 
this  scalding  will  destroy  them;  and  the  peas,  instead  of  be- 
ing hurt,  will  come  up  the  sooner,  and  grow  the  faster. 

Mildew  is  another  evil  attending  peas,  especially  such  as 
are  sown  late  in  the  season.  This  disorder  is  supposed  by 
Knight,  to  be  caused  by  "  a  want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of 
moisture  from  the  soil,  with  excess  of  humidity  in  the  air, 
particularly  if  the  plants  be  exposed  to  a  temperature  below 
that  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed."  The  remedy 
which  he  recommends  is,  to  "give  water  rather  profusely 
once  a  week,  or  nine  days,  even  if  the  weather  proves  show- 
ery."—  See  Mw  England  Farmer,  Vol.  I.  p.  414. 


152  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

Use.  The  use  of  peas  for  soups  and  other  cuUnarj  pur- 
poses is  well  known.  They  are  likewise  very  serviceable  in 
fattening  hogs,  for  which  purpose  they  should  be  harvested 
dry,  and  ground  into  meal.  If  the  straw  be  forward  in  au- 
tumn, and  has  been  harvested  without  injury,  it  will  be  little 
inferior  to  ordinary  hay  for  feeding  cattle. 

"  In  boiling  split  peas,  some  samples,  without  reference  to 
variety,  fall  or  moulder  down  freely  into  pulp,  while  others 
continue  to  maintain  their  form.  The  former  are  called 
boilers.  This  property  of  boiling,  depends  on  the  soil;  stiff 
land,  or  sandy  land  that  has  been  limed  or  marled,  uniformly 
produces  peas  that  will  not  melt  in  boiling,  no  matter  what 
the  variety  may  be."  —  Loudon. 

"  When  peas  are  sown  before  winter,  or  early  in  spring, 
they  are  very  apt  to  be  eaten  by  mice.  To  prevent  this, 
soak  the  peas  for  a  day  or  two  in  train  oil  before  you  sow 
them,  which  will  encourage  their  vegetation,  and  render 
them  so  obnoxious  to  the  mice  that  they  will  not  eat  them." 
—  Domestic  Encyclopedia. 


BEANS.  Loudon  gives  the  following  directions  for  the 
culture  of  runners,  or  jjole-beans,  as  they  are  commonly  call- 
ed in  this  country:  —  The  runner  kidney  beans  may  be  sown 
in  a  small  portion  towards  the  end  of  April,  [about  the  mid- 
dle of  May  in  New  England,]  if  tolerably  warm,  dry  weath- 
er ;  but  as  these  beans  are  rather  more  tender  than  the 
dwarf  sorts,  more  liable  to  rot  in  the  ground  by  wet  and 
cold,  especially  the  scarlets,  the  beginning  or  middle  of  May 
[first  of  June  in  New  England]  will  be  time  enough  to  sow 
a  considerable  crop;  and  you  may  sow  a  full  crop  about  the 
beginning  of  June.  Allot  principally  the  scarlet  and  large 
white  runners.  Some  Dutch  runners  are  very  eligible  as  a 
secondary  crop.  The  first  crops  should  have  the  assistance 
of  a  south  wall.  Intermediate  crops  may  be  sown  in  any 
open  compartment,  or  against  any  fence  not  looking  north. 
The  latest  sown  will  continue  bearing  longer  under  a  good 
aspect  and  shelter.  In  sowing,  draw  drills  about  an  inch 
and  a  half,  or  not  more  than  two  inches  deep.  Let  parallel 
rows  be  at  least  four  feet  asunder,  to  admit  in  the  intervals 
tall  sticks  or  poles  for  the  plants  to  climb  on.  Place  the 
beans  in  the  drills  four  inches  apart,  and  earth  them  in  even- 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST  lo3 

ly  the  depth  of  the  drills.  A  row  contiguous  to  a  fence  or 
building  may  ascend  upon  lines.  Some  may  be  sown  in  a 
single  row  along  a  border,  or  on  each  side  of  a  walk,  and 
havo  the  support  of  a  slight  trellis  of  laths  and  lines  ;  or 
they  might  be  arched  over  with  similar  materials,  to  form  a 
shady  walk  or  bower.  In  a  cold,  wet  season,  or  when  re- 
quisite to  have  a  few  plants  more  forward  than  the  general 
crop,  some  scarlets  may  be  sown  in  April,  either  in  a  slight 
hotbed,  or  in  pots,  under  frames  of  hand-glasses,  to  raise 
and  forward  the  plants,  till  two  or  three  inches  high  ;  then, 
at  the  end  of  May,  transplant  them  into  the  open  garden. 
As  the  plants  come  up,  and  advance  from  three  to  six  inches 
in  growth,  hoe  some  earth  to  the  stems,  cutting  down  all 
weeds.  When  they  begin  to  send  forth  runners,  place  suita- 
ble supports  to  each  row;  and  conduct  the  tendrils  to  the 
sticks  or  lines,  turning  them  in  a  contrary  direction  to  the 
sun.  The  ascending  plants  will  soon  come  into  flower,  pod- 
ding at  the  joints,  in  long  succession.  They  are  so  prolific, 
that  the  returns  from  three  sowings,  in  May,  June,  and  July, 
will  last  from  July  till  October. 

Taking  the  Crop.  Gather  the  pods,  both  from  dwarfs  and 
runners,  while  they  are  young,  fleshy,  brittle,  and  tender,  for 
then  they  are  in  the  highest  perfection  for  the  table  ;  and 
the  plants  will  bear  more  fully,  and  last  longer  in  fruit,  under 
a  course  of  clean  gathering,  not  leaving  any  superabundant 
pods  to  grow  old. 

To  save  Seed.  Either  sow  a  portion  for  that  object,  or 
leave  rows  wholly  ungathered  of  the  main  crop,  or  preserve 
a  sufficiency  of  good  pods  promiscuously.  The  beans  saved 
should  be  the  first  fruits  of  a  crop  sown  at  a  period  which 
throws  the  entire  course  of  growth  into  the  finest  part  of 
summer.  Let  them  hang  on  the  stalks  till  they  ripen  fully, 
in  August  and  September  ;  then  let  the  haulm  be  pulled  up 
and  placed  in  the  sun,  to  dry  and  harden  the  seed,  which 
should  be  afterwards  cleared  out  of  the  husks,  bagged  up, 
and  housed. 

The  pea,  English  bean,  and  kidney  bean,  are  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  various  insects,  especially  the  aphides,  [plant  lice,] 
in  dry  seasons.  When  early  crops  are  newly  sown  or  plant- 
ed, mice  will  burrow  for  and  eat  the  seed,  and  when  it  be- 
gins to  penetrate  the  soil,  it  is  attacked  by  snails,  slugs,  the 
cut-worm,  &c.  The  usual  means  of  guarding  against  the 
ravages  of  insects  must,  therefore,  be  resorted  to  by  the 
gardener. 


% 


154  THE    COMPLETE   FARMER 

As  regards  the  field-culture  of  the  bean,  we  would  observe, 
that  the  white  kind,  which  is  most  generally  approved  of  in 
New  England,  will  produce  pretty  good  crops  on  poor, 
sandy,  or  gravelly  soils  ;  but,  when  planted  on  such  ground, 
it  is  good  husbandry  to  wet  and  roll  them  in  plaster  before 
planting.  They  may  be  planted  in  hills  or  drills,  the  rows 
two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  apart,  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  soil,  and  cultivated  like  other  hoed  crops.  They  may 
be  planted  the  latter  end  of  May,  or  beginning  of  June,  or 
about  the  time  of  planting  Indian  corn.  If  planted  in  hills, 
they  may  be  placed  from  fourteen  to  twenty-four  inches  apart 
in  the  rows,  and  the  rows  the  distance  before  mentiDned. 
Five  beans  are  quite  enough  to  remain  in  a  hill.  Hogs' 
dung,  mixed  with  ashes,  is  said  to  be  the  best  manure  for 
them  ;  and  it  is  said  to  be  very  injurious  to  beans  to  hoe 
them  while  the  dew  is  on,  or  in  wet  weather. 

Judge  Buel,  of  Albany,  has  given  the  following  notices 
of  some  experiments  in  the  field-culture  of  this  vegetable  : 
"  Beans  may  be  cultivated  in  drills  or  in  hills.  They  are  a 
valuable  crop  ;  and,  with  good  care,  are  as  profitable  as  a 
wheat  crop.  They  leave  the  soil  in  good  tilth.  The  China 
bean,  with  a  red  eye  is  to  be  preferred.  They  ripen  early, 
and  are  very  productive.  I  cultivated  beans  the  last  year 
in  three  different  ways,  viz.  in  hills,  in  drills,  and  sowed 
broad-cast.  I  need  not  describe  the  first,  which  is  a  well- 
known  process.  I  had  an  acre  in  drills,  which  was  the  best 
crop  1  ever  saw.  My  management  was  this  ;  on  an  acre 
of  light  ground,  where  the  clover  had  been  frozen  out  the 
preceding  winter,  I  spread  eight  loads  of  long  manure,  and 
immediately  ploughed  and  harrowed  the  ground.  Drills  or 
furrows  were  then  made  with  a  light  plough,  at  the  distance 
of  two  and  a  half  feet,  and  the  beans  thrown  along  the  fur- 
rows, about  the  25th  of  May,  by  the  hand,  at  the  rate  of  at 
least  a  bushel  on  the  acre.  I  then  gauged  a  double  mould- 
board  plough,  which  was  passed  once  between  the  rows,  and 
was  followed  by  a  light  one-horse  roller,  which  flattened  the 
ridges.  The  crop  was  twice  cleaned  of  weeds,  by  the  hoe, 
but  not  earthed.  The  product  was  more  than  forty-eight 
bushels,  by  actual  measurement.  The  beans  brought  me 
one  dollar  the  bushel  last  fall.  The  third  experiment  was 
likewise  upon  a  piece  of  ground  where  the  clover  had  been 
killed.  It  was  ploughed  about  the  1st  of  June,  the  seed 
sown  like  peas,  upon  the  first  furrow,  and  harrowed  in.  The 
drought  kept  them  back ;  but  about  sixty-five  rods  of  ground, 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  155 

on  which  the  experiment  was  made,  gave  a  product  of  twelve 
and  a  half  bushels.  The  crop  was  too  ripe  when  it  Avas  har- 
vested, and  as  it  was  cut  with  'a  scythe,  I  estimated  that 
about  two  and  a  half  bushels  were  left  upon  the  ground.  No 
labor  was  bestowed  upon  them  from  the  time  they  were  sown 
till  they  were  harvested. 


SWINE.  Notwithstanding  their  evil  propensities,  filthy 
and  mischievous  habits,  and  insatiable  voracity,  swine  are 
very  profitable  animals  to  a  farmer.  Indeed,  every  family 
in  which  there  is  any  cooking  done  should  keep  at  least  one 
hog,  always  confined  in  a  proper  pen,  in  order  to  consume 
the  washing  of  pots,  dishes,  refuse  food,  &c. 

As  much  depends  on  the  breed  of  swine  as  of  any  domes- 
tic animal,  as  relates  to  the  profit  of  keeping.  The  old- 
fashioned,  thin,  long-legged,  long-nosed,  gaunt-bodied  hogs 
are  now,  we  believe,  hardly  tolerated  in  New  England,  and 
are  becoming  as  scarce  as  they  are  ugly  and  unprofitable. 
We  are  but  little  acquainted  with  the  different  breeds  of  their 
successors,  and  shall  not  therefore  assume  the  responsibility 
of  recommending  any  particular  race.  O.  Fiske,  Esq.,  of 
Worcester,  an  able,  enlightened,  and  patriotic  cultivator, 
says,  "  My  hogs  are  of  the  Bedford  breed,  so  called  in  Eng- 
land ;  and  experience  has  proved  to  my  satisfaction  that  this 
breed  is  far  the  best  that  has  been  introduced  into  our  coun- 
try. They  are  quiet  in  their  nature,  fat  easy,  and  with  little 
expense  or  trouble.  I  have  had  some  weigh  at  twelve  months 
old  about  three  hundred  and  forty  pounds,  and  a  considera- 
ble number  of  eighteen  months  old  four  hundred  pounds." 

"  Tiie  marks  of  a  good  hog  are,  a  moderate  length  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  body  ;  the  nose  short  ;  the  cheek 
plump  and  full  ;  neck  thick  and  short  ;  quarters  full  ;  car- 
cass thick  and  full  ;  hair  fine  and  thin  ;  with  a  symmetry 
adapted  to  the  breed  to  which  it  belongs.  Above  all,  it  is  es- 
sential that  it  be  of  a  kindly  disposition  to  fatten  early." 

The  sow  should  be  selected  with  great  care,  broad  and 
straight-backed;  wide  hips;  a  great  many  teats  ;  short  legs, 
and  fine  bone.  It  is  said  that  the  sow  will  produce  the 
stronger  and  better  litter  if  not  allowed  to  breed  till  a  year 
old,  and  the  boar  should  not  be  younger  than  that  age  when 
put  to  sows.  Sows  may  be  allowed  to  breed  till  they  are  six 
years  old,  and  boars  till  five  ;   and  both  be  made  good  pork 


156  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

after  this  period,  by  methods  which  do  not  require  descrip- 
tion. One  male,  according  to  "  The  Complete  Grazier," 
should  not  be  permitted  to  have  access  to  more  than  ten  fe- 
males in  a  year.  Sows  will  usually  have  pigs  twice  a  year, 
and  should  be  put  to  the  males  at  such  times  as  will  bring 
one  litter  in  April  and  another  early  in  September. 

"Those  sows  are  accounted  the  best  breeders,"  says 
"The  Farmer's  Assistant,"  "which  have  about  ten  or 
twelve  paps.  They  should  be  kept  clean  and  well  littered  ; 
but  should  not  have  too  much  litter  at  the  time  of  pigging, 
lest  they  overlay  their  pigs  in  it.  At  the  end  of  a  week  or 
ten  days,  they  should  be  let  out  of  their  sties  into  the  yard 
for  three  or  four  hours  each  day.  Where  several  sows  are 
farrowing  about  the  same  time,  they  must  be  kept  in  sepa- 
rate apartments  in  the  sty,  lest  they  devour  the  pigs  of  each 
other.  Young  sows  will  sometimes  eat  their  own  offspring, 
which  may  be  prevented,  by  washing  the  backs  of  the  pigs 
in  an  infusion  of  aloes  ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  the  sows 
must  be  watched.  It  is  said  that  supplying  them  with  plenty 
of  water  at  this  time  will  prevent  any  mischief  taking  place 
of  this  kind." 

Mr.  Featherstonhaugh  says,  "Farmers  differ  much  in 
their  plans  of  raising  stock  for  pork  ;  some  permitting  their 
shoats  to  run  at  large  eighteen  months,  till  they  are  penned 
up  to  fatten  ;  this  is  the  most  troublesome  and  least  profita- 
ble way  ;  others  give  them  a  range  in  clover  pastures,  and 
begin  to  fatten  them  earlier.  I  apprehend  there  is  a  much 
more  profitable  way,  and  attended  with  less  trouble  for  those 
who  have  the  right  breed.  According  to  the  quantity  of 
pork  wanted  should  be  the  number  of  breeding  sows  kept 
over,  and  there  should  be  no  other  hogs  on  the  farm  [that  is, 
kept  over  winter]  but  the  breeding  sows.  These,  when  they 
pig  the  latter  end  of  March,  should  be  fed  in  the  most  at- 
tentive manner,  with  swill  and  shorts.  The  pigs  from  a  full- 
grown  sow  will  generally  be  twelve  in  number;  these  should 
be  thinned  down  to  eight,  and  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  feed 
freely  out  of  the  trough  should  be  weaned,  and  afterwards 
fed  regularly  with  green  tares,  clover,  boiled  potatoes,  ground 
peas,  unmerchantable  corn,  or  any  other  nourishing  food  ; 
turning  them  out  every  day  into  a  small  yard,  where  there 
is  a  shallow  pond  for  them  to  lie  in.  A  remarkable  breed 
of  pigs,  which  had  been  treated  pretty  much  in  this  manner, 
were  exhibited  at  Duanesburgh  fair;  when  eight  months  old, 
one   of  them   was  slaughtered,    and  weighed  exactly   three 


^\ 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  157 

hundred  and  eleven  pounds  ;  they  all  attracted  universal  at- 
tention, and  I  never  saw  such  animals  before.  This  method, 
as  it  is  attended  with  little  trouble,  and  leaves  so  small  a 
quantity  of  stock  on  hand  to  winter  over,  appears  to  me  to 
be  more  economical,  in  every  point  of  view,  than  any  other 
which  is  practised."*  In  the  county  of  Rensellaer,  New 
York,  some  farmers  assert,  that  "March  pigs,  killed  about 
Christmas,  are  the  most  profitable  for  pork."  Others  say, 
"  pigs  ought  never  to  come  until  June;  for  the  cost  of  earlier 
pigs  exceeds  the  profit."  And,  farther,  we  learn  that  "  the 
methods  proposed  for  fattening  hogs  by  the  different  farmers 
in  that  county  are  very  various.  General  H.  Moffit,  H. 
Piatt,  Esq.,  Colonel  Worthington,  Messrs.  J.  Phillips,  A. 
Bush,  and  some  others,  recommend  keeping  hogs  in  pas- 
tures, with  some  slops  from  the  dairy,  &c.,  till  near  the  last 
of  August;  some  say  a  little  later.  All  agree  that  near  this 
time  they  manifest  a  disrelish  for  grass.  Small  patches  of 
peas,  or  even  of  corn,  will  then  be  convenient  to  turn  them 
into  for  a  few  weeks.  About  the  first  of  September  begin 
with  boiled  potatoes  and  pumpkins,  mashed  together,  with  a 
little  Indian  meal,  ground  oats  and  peas,  or  other  grain, 
stirred  into  the  mixture  after  it  cools.  From  two  to  four 
weeks  before  killing  time,  the  food  should  be  dry  Indian 
corn,  and  clean  cold  water.  Mr.  Yonghans  fattens  his  hogs 
in  a  large  yard  or  field,  with  a  shelter  in  it  to  which  they 
may  retire  to  sleep.  But  elder  Turner  says,  hogs  should 
never  know  what  liberty  is,  but  should  be  kept  close  all  their 
lives,  and  as  inactive  as  possible  ;  that  with  this  method 
double  the  quantity  of  pork  can  be  produced  with  the  same 
expense  of  feed."| 

The  practice  in  Scotland  is,^to  rear  swine  chiefly  on  raw 
potatoes,  and  to  fatten  them  on  these  roots,  boiled  or  prepar- 
ed by  steam,  with  a  mixture  of  oats,  barley,  or  bean  and 
pea-meal.  Their  troughs  should  be  often  replenished  with 
a  small  quantity  of  food  at  a  time,  and  kept  always  clean, 
and  seasoned  occasionally  with  salt.  J  "  The  Farmer's 
Magazine  "  says,  "The  outside  leaves  of  cabbages,  salted 
and  let  stand  a  month,  and  then  mixed  with  buttermilk,  will 
fat  a  hog  in  three  weeks."  Mr.  Marshall  says,  ("  Midland 
Counties,"   Vol.  V.   p.  453,)    "Young   pigs  require  warm 

*  Memoirs  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Agriculture,  Vol.  I.  p.  332. 

t  Memoirs  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Agricnlttire,  Vol.  II.  pp.  39,  40. 

:};  Report  of  Agriculture  in  Scotland. 

14 


158  THE  COMPLETE  far:.:er 

meat  to  make  them  p-ow.  Com  and  cold  water  will  make 
them  healthy;  but  warm  beverage  is  considered  as  requisite 
to  a  quick  growth."  The  same  writer  mentions  another 
practice,  which  perhaps  it  may  be  thought  proper  to  imitate 
in  this  country,  because  it  saves  labor  and  care.  Some 
English  farmers,  he  says,  "  keep  two  or  three  little  store 
pigs  in  the  fatting  sty.  ^Vhile  the  fatting  hogs  are  taking 
their  repast,  the  little  ones  wait  behind  them,  and  as  soon  as 
their  betters  are'served,  lick  out  the  troughs. 

"Besides  the  advantage  of  having  by  this  expedient  no 
waste  nor  foal  troughs,  there  is  another.  The  large  pigs 
rise  alertlv  to  their  food,  lest  the  small  ones  should  forestall 
them;  and  till  themselves  the  fuller,  knowing  that  they  have 
it  not  again  to  go  to. 

"  The  disadvantage  of  this  practice  is,  I  understand,  the 
large  ones  are  apt  to  lord  it  too  much  over  the  little  ones; 
especially  in  a  confined  sty.  If.  however,  they  had  a  sepa- 
rate apartment  assigned  them,  with  an  entrance  too  small  for 
the  fatting  swine  to  follow  them,  this  disadvantage  would  be 
in  a  great  measure  remedied." 

If  one  wishes  to  fatten  hogs,  and  either  irom  indolence  or 
too  much  occupation  does  not  expect  to  give  them  a  con- 
stant and  regular  attention,  perhaps  he  may  adopt  to  advan- 
tage the  following  mode,  pointed  out  bv  an  English  writer. 
"Mr.  John  Adams,  of  Cherrington,  near  Newport,  Shrop- 
shire, has  fattened  eight  pigs  in  the  following  cheap  and  easy 
manner:  he  places  two  troughs  in  the  sty,  one  he  fills  with 
raw  potatoes,  the  otlier  with  peas,  and  gives  no  water:  when 
the  pigs  are  dry  they  eat  the  potatoes.  The  eight  pigs  were 
fattened  so  as  to  weigh  from  sixteen  to  twenty  score  each, 
and  ate  no  more  than  thirty  bushels  of  peas,  and  about  two 
hundred  bushels  of  potatoes."  Xo  doubt  dry  Indian  corn 
and  potatoes  might  be  fed  out  in  this  way  with  as  good  an 
effect  as  peas  and  potatoes. 

Rubbing  and  currying  the  hides  of  fattening  hogs  is  of 
great  advantage  to  them.  It  is  not  only  very  grateful  to 
them,  but  conducive  to  their  health.  It  will  be  well,  like- 
wise, in  every  sty  to  place  a  strong  post  for  the  animals  to 
rub  against.  During  the  time  of  their  fattening  they  should 
have  plenty  of  litter,  which  will  be  a  double  advantage,  pro- 
vidincr  for  the  comfort  of  the  animal  and  increasing  the 
quantity  of  manure. 

Boiled  or  steamed  clover  hay  will,  it  is  said,  keep  store 
hogs  in  the  winter,  but  the  addition  of  boiled  or  steamed  po- 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  159 

tatoes  or  carrots  will  much  increase  the  value  of  the  wash. 
Mr.  Young  directs  to  soil  or  feed  swine  in  a  yard  on  clover, 
cut  up  with  a  scythe,  in  preference  to  pasturing  them  in  the 
field.  But  Judge  Peters,  of  Pennsylvania,  says,  "  In  sum- 
mer my  hogs  chiefly  run  on  clover.  Swine  feeding  on  clover 
in  the  fields  will  thrive  wonderfully;  when  those  (confined  or 
not)  fed  on  cut  clover  will  fall  away."  In  Indian  harvest, 
the  unripe  ears  of  corn  should  be  picked  out  and  given  to 
the  hogs  as  fast  as  they  can  eat  them.  Soft  corn  (as  it  is 
called)  will  do  them  much  more  good  in  a  green  than  in  a 
dried  state,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  dry  it  without  its  turn- 
ing mouldy. 

There  is  a  great  advantage  in  boiling,  steaming,  or  baking 
almost  all  sorts  of  food  given  to  swine.  The  last  American 
edition  of  "The  Domestic  Encyclopedia,"  informs,  that 
"Mr.  Timothy  Kirk,  of  Yorktown,  Pennsylvania,  fed  one 
pig  with  boiled  potatoes  and  Indian  corn,  and  another  with 
the  same  articles  unboiled.  The  two  animals  were  weighed 
every  week,  and  the  difference  between  them  was  as  six  to 
nine.  The  experiment  was  continued  several  weeks,  and 
the  animals  alternately  fed  upon  boiled  and  unboiled  food, 
with  a  uniformity  of  result,  which  sufficiently  showed  the 
very  great  profit  arising  from  boiled  food."  Steaming  will 
answer  as  good  a  purpose  as  boiling,  and  with  a  proper  ap- 
paratus may  be  more  easily  and  cheaply  effected.*  Potatoes, 
meal,  and  a  little  linseed  boiled  together,  make  a  rich  and 
excellent  wash.  Boiled  linseed,  it  is  said,  has  a  tendency  to 
make  pork  soft  and  oily,  and  should  therefore  be  but  little  if 
at  all  used  towards  the  close  of  the  time  in  which  hogs  are 
fattening.  Grains  of  distilleries  and  the  refuse  of  starch 
factories  are  excellent  for  fattening  swine.  Sweet  apples  are 
very  good  food  for  them,  and  a  change  of  diet  pretty  often 
promotes  their  health  and  quickens  the  process  of  fattening. 
Their  meals  should  frequently  be  seasoned  with  a  little  salt. 
"  The  Complete  Farmer,"  says,  that  "  moist  sedgy  grounds 
are  good  for  swine,  the  roots  which  grow  in  such  soils  they 
•will  eat;  likewise  brakes,  ground-nuts,  acorns,  chestnuts," 
&c.  Dr.  Anderson  said,  that  the  hogs  that  are  fed  upon  the 
acorns  that  they  gather  in  the  woods  of  Germany  and  Poland 
are  reckoned  to  yield  the  finest  bacon  of  any  in  Europe;  and 
it  is  to  this  that  most  people  ascribe  the  superior  excellence 
of  Westphalia  hams.    It  might  be  well  to  try  acorns,  steamed 

*See  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  I.  p.  23. 


160  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

or  boiled,  in  order  to  correct  their  crudeness  and  bitterness; 
and  it  has  been  recommended  to  moisten  them,  and  keep 
them  on  hand  till  they  begin  to  sprout,  when  they  will  be 
more  sweet  and  nutritious  than  in  their  original  state.  "  The 
Complete  Farmer"  asserts,  that  "when  hogs  are  fatted  entire- 
ly  on  acorns,  chestnuts,  and  other  productions  of  the  forest, 
the  flesh  will  eat  much  better  and  sweeter  than  if  fattened  in 
a  sty.  Some  indeed  say  their  fat  will  not  be  so  solid,  nor  so 
profitable,  and  therefore  they  commonly  shut  them  up  a  week 
or  ten  days,  and  feed  them  with  dry  peas;  but  this  is  a  mis- 
take, experience  having  shown  that  hogs  fatted  with  acorns 
only  have  their  fat  as  solid  as  those  fatted  with  peas."  If  this 
be  correct,  the  value  of  acorns  as  food  for  swine  is  not  gene- 
rally known  in  those  parts  of  the  United  States  with  which 
we  have  been  acquainted.  We  have  seen  places  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  farmers'  dwellings  where  bushels  might  be 
had  for  stooping,  but  were  as  much  neglected  as  if  they  had 
been  pebble  stones.  The  acorns  recommended  are,  we  be- 
lieve, those  of  the  white  oak;  and  whether  the  acorns  of  the 
numerous  other  kinds  of  oak  are  of  any  value  as  food  for 
swine  we  cannot  say.  It  might  be  well  to  try  them,  not  only 
raw,  but  boiled  or  steamed,  and  likewise  ground  into  meal, 
and  given  with,  as  well  as  without  other  mixtures.  We  sus- 
pect that  acorns  alone  would  prove  astringent,  and  if  so,  they 
might  be  qualified  with  a  trough  full  of  raw  potatoes. 

Carrots,  according  to  Mr.  Young,  are  better  than  pota- 
toes, and  some  other  writers  assure  us,  that  parsnips  are  bet- 
ter than  either  for  feeding  hogs.  An  English  writer  says, 
"They  fatten  all  their  pork  in  the  island  of  Jersey  with 
parsnips.  They  are  much  more  saccharine  than  carrots,  and 
it  is  well  known  that  nothing  fattens  a  hog  faster  or  makes 
finer  pork  than  the  sugar-cane:  "  and  we  are  told,  that  pars- 
nips, suffered  to  remain  in  the  ground  where  they  grew 
through  the  winter,  and  drawn  in  the  spring,  and  boiled,  tops 
and  bottoms,  made  most  excellent  food  for  swine  when  other 
food  was  scarce. 

Acid  or  fermented  food  for  swine  has  been  highly  recom- 
mended. Mr.  Arthur  Young,  whose  authority  amongst  hus- 
bandmen is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  pope  with  Roman 
Catholics,  says,  "  that  the  most  profitable  method  of  con- 
verting corn  of  any  kind  into  food  for  hogs  is,  to  grind  it  into 
meal,  and  mix  this  with  water  in  cisterns,  in  the  proportion 
of  five  bushels  of  meal  to  one  hundred  gallons  water;  stir- 
ring  it  well   several   times  a  day   for  three  weeks  in  cold 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  161 

weather,  or  a  fortnight  in  a  warmer  season,  by  which  it  will 
have  fermented  well  and  become  acid,  till  which  it  is  not 
ready  to  give.  The  mixture  should  always  be  stirred  im- 
mediately before  feeding,  and  two  or  three  cisterns  should 
be  kept  fermenting  in  succession,  that  no  necessity  may  oc- 
cur of  giving  it  not  duly  prepared."  Judge  Peters,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, whose  authority  is,  in  our  opinion,  not  inferior  to 
that  of  any  man  who  ever  wrote  on  agricultural  topics,  says, 
in  substance,  that  "sour  food  is  most  grateful  and  alimenta- 
ry to  swine.  One  gallon  of  sour  wash  goes  farther  than  two 
of  sweet."     But 

An  English  work,  entitled  "Farmer's  Calender,"  (author's 
name  not  given,)  declares,  that  "  much  has  been  said,  and 
little  understood,  about  purposely  souring  food  for  hogs.  It 
is  not  that  acidity  can  possibly  tend  to  pinguefaction,  [mak- 
ing fat,]  but  it  is  found  the  pigs  will  readily  fatten  upon  acid, 
or  rather  acescent  food,  a  sweetish  taste  and  glutinous  quality 
succeeding  fermentation;  and  that  they  icill  do  so  still  more 
readily  upon  such  as  has  never  reached  the  acid  state,  I  know 
and  have  seen  in  hundreds  of  instances.  Is  a  proof  wanted  ? 
How  much  more  readily  do  the  country  hogs  feed  upon 
sweet  and  unfermented  food,  than  those  of  the  starch-house 
upon  the  fermented  and  subacid  wash,  however  rich.  I  say 
subacid,  for  did  not  starch-makers  run  off  a  great  part  of 
that  which  is  really  sour,  they  would  kill  instead  of  fatten 
their  hogs." 

In  order  to  reconcile  these  writers,  it  will  only  be  necessary 
to  advert  to  the  different  stages  of  ordinary  fermentation, 
and  the  products  of  each  stage.  The  first  stage  of  fermen- 
tation produces  sugar,  and  is  called  the  saccharine  fermenta- 
tion. The  second  stage  developes  alcohol,  or  spirit  of  wine, 
and  is  called  the  vinous  fermentation.  The  third  stage  pro- 
duces vinegar,  and  is  called  the  acid  fermentation;  and  the 
fourth  and  last  stage  converts  the  matter  fermenting  into  a 
substance  which  is  not  only  offensive,  but  poisonous,  and  is 
called  the  putrid  fermentation.  Thus  if  you  soak  wheat  or 
other  farinaceous  substance  in  water  of  a  proper  temperature, 
it  will  first  become  sweet,  and  begin  to  sprout  or  vegetate; 
it  will  next  afford  spirit  or  alcohol;  continue  the  process,  the 
wash  turns  sour,  at  first  slightly,  and  then  more  strongly 
acid;  and  at  last  the  whole  becomes  putrid.  It  probably 
contains  most  nourishment  when  it  is  sweetest,  but  it  is  valu- 
able till  very  sour,  when  it  is  worth  little  or  nothing;  and 
when  the  putrid   fermentation   has   commenced  it  is  worse 


162  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

than  nothing,  as  food  for  any  animal.  The  farmer  then 
should  give  his  wash  to  his  pigs  while  it  is  yet  sweet,  or  but 
beginning  to  turn  sour. 

Fattening  Pigs  on  Coal.  Cunningham,  in  his  "Two  Years 
in  New  South  Wales,"  relates,  "I  had  often  heard  it  said 
among  sailors  that  pigs  would  fatten  on  coals,  and  although 
I  had  observed  them  very  fond  of  munching  up  the  coals  and 
cinders  that  came  in  their  way,  still  I  conceived  they  might 
relish  them  more  as  a  condiment  or  medicine  than  as  food, 
till  I  was  assured  by  a  worthy  friend  of  mine,  long  in  com- 
mand of  a  ship,  that  he  once  knew  of  a  pig  being  lost  for 
several  weeks  in  a  vessel  he  commanded,  and  it  was  at  last 
found  to  have  tumbled  into  the  coal-hole,  and  there  lived  all 
that  period  without  a  single  morsel  of  any  thing  to  feed  upon 
but  coals  :  on  being  dragged  out,  it  was  found  as  jjlump  and 
fat  as  if  it  had  been  feasting  on  the  most  nutritious  food. 
Another  friend  told  me  of  a  similar  case,  which  came  under 
his  observation;  and  although  these  may  be  solitary  instan- 
ces, yet  they  serve  at  least  to  show  the  wonderful  facility 
which  the  stomachs  of  certain  animals  possess  of  adapting 
their  digestive  powers  to  such  an  extraordinary  species  of 
food,  and  extracting  wholesome  nourishment  therefrom. 
When  we  consider  coal,  however,  to  be  a  vegetable  produc- 
tion, containing  the  constituent  principles  of  fat,  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  our  surprise  will  decrease." 

An  Ohio  farmer  also,  in  a  southern  paper,  recommends 
coals  as  useful  in  fattening  hogs.  After  giving  his  hogs  a 
small  quantity  daily,  say  two  pieces  to  each,  about  the  size 
of  a  hen's  egg,  they  discontinued  rooting,  were  more  quiet, 
and  appeared  to  fatten  faster.  He  omitted  the  coal  a  few 
days,  and  they  commenced  rooting  ;  he  gave  it  again,  and 
they  ceased  to  root.  He  supposed  that  the  coal  corrects  the 
morbid  fluid  in  the  stomach,  which  incites  them  to  root  deep 
in  search  of  fresh  earth. 

The  following  mixture  for  fattening  swine  has  been  re- 
commended : 

Wash  potatoes  clean,  boil  and  mash  while  hot,  mix  in  at 
the  same  time  oats  and  pea  meal.  Put  the  mixture  into  a 
large  tub,  which  must  stand  till  it  becomes  sour,  but  not 
putrid.  Keep  a  quantity  of  this  on  hand,  always  fermenting, 
and  give  it  to  your  hogs  as  often  as  they  will  eat. 

Apples  have  been  much  recommended  as  food  for  swine. 
They  are  good  raw,  but  better  if  boiled  and  mixed  with 
meal.   A  writer  in  a  Brattleborough  paper  observes,  "  I  have 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  163 

tested  by  ten  years'  experience  the  value  of  apples  as  food 
for  animals.  I  keep  five  or  six  hogs  in  my  orchard,  upon 
nothing  but  apples  and  a  little  swill  ;  and  have  uniformly 
found  them  to  grow  and  gain  flesh  faster  than  hogs  fed  upon 
any  thing  else  but  grain.  On  the  1st  of  November,  they 
are  very  decent  pork  ;  after  which  I  feed  them  about  six 
weeks  on  grain  before  I  kill  them  ;  and  I  believe  I  have  as 
fat  hogs  and  as  good  pork  as  my  neighbours,  who  give  to 
their  hogs  double  the  quantity  of  grain  that  I  do  to  mine." 

Soivs  devouring  their  Offspring.  It  is  not  unfrequently  the 
case  that  sows  destroy  their  offspring.  In  "The  New  Eng- 
land Farmer,"  (Vol.  V.  p.  214,)  is  a  communication  from 
the  Hon.  O.  Fiske,  in  which  he  observes,  "  In  most  cases 
where  I  have  inquired  into  the  fact,  whether  in  old  or  young 
breeders,  I  have  ascertained  that  they  have  been  disturbed 
in  some  of  their  essential  habits,  either  having  been  remov- 
ed from  their  companions,  their  range  restricted,  or  from 
being  removed  from  one  pen  to  another.  All  these  changes, 
however,  may  be  efTected  with  safety,  by  allowing  them  suf- 
ficient time  to  become  accustomed  to  them,  four  or  five 
weeks  at  least.  I  have  known  sows  do  well  with  a  second 
litter  after  having  destroyed  a  first  under  one  of  the  above 
excitements.  Hence,  it  would  be  unwise  to  condemn  to 
death  one  which  bid  fair  otherwise  to  be  a  valuable  breeder, 
even  for  this  most  unnatural  crime." 

Another  writer  directs  to  "  separate  the  sow  from  the  rest 
of  the  swine  six  or  eight  weeks  before  her  bringing  forth,  so 
that  she  may  become  accustomed  to  her  pen.  Care  should 
be  taken,  however,  to  have  her  pen  kept  dry  and  well  lit- 
tered ;  always  give  them  litter  enough  so  as  not  to  be  oblig- 
ed to  give  any  for  six  days  before  the  time,  for  nothing  dis- 
turbs a  sow  more  than  an  abundance  of  litter,  and  which  in 
my  opinion  has  a  great  tendency  to  induce  her  to  destroy 
her  young.  If  the  sow  is  with  the  other  swine  till  within  a 
few  days  of  her  bringing  forth,  and  then  separated,  she 
will  not  get  accustomed  to  her  pen,  and  being  disturbed,  she 
will  be  pretty  sure  to  destroy  her  pigs. 

"Raw  salt  pork,  cut  in  small  pieces,  and  given,  will  pre- 
vent them  from  eating  their  pigs.  I  have  seen  it  given  after 
they  had  ate  two  or  three  of  their  litter,  with  good  success. 
But  to  prevent  any  mischief  it  should  be  kept  by  them  at 
this  time."*  A  writer  for  the  same  paper,  (Vol.  XI.  p.  298,) 

*  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  XI.  p.  297. 


164  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

observes,  "I  have  been  careful  for  about  a  week  before  my 
sows  were  about  to  farrow,  to  give  them  some  butcher's  re- 
fuse meat,  which  does  not  cost  much  ;  if  easy  to  be  pro- 
cured give  them  a  plenty,  and  I  will  venture  to  say  that  they 
will  not  eat  their  pigs." 

Another,  in  the  same  volume,  p.  305,  observes,  "  When 
the  period  of  yeaning  is  near,  I  take  the  sow  apart  and  give 
her  free  access  to  a  ivarm  bedroom  of  ample  dimensions  in 
my  barn,  with  a  dry  plank  floor,  where  the  shingled  walls 
prevent  the  entrance  of  cold,  rain,  or  wind,  with  just  enough 
straw  to  amuse  her  '  moments  of  anxiety,'  but  not  enough  to 
allow  a  single  pig  to  cover  his  head  and  lose  his  road  to  the 
fountain  of  comfort."  A  writer  with  the  signature  "Berk- 
shire," in  the  same  volume,  p.  321,  states  as  his  opinion,  that 
the  evil  is  caused  by  confining  the  sow  in  a  light  pen  from 
the  ground,  and  the  want  of  a  suitable  supply  of  potatoes, 
turnips,  ruta  baga.  Sec,  in  addition  to  their  other  food. 
"  Whaler,''  in  the  same  paper,  p.  338,  who  has  raised  fine 
pigs  on  board  of  a  whale  ship,  at  sea,  without  grass  or  roots, 
Iselieved  animal  food  the  specific  remedy  for  the  unnatural 
inclination  of  sows  to  devour  their  offspring.  And  "A 
Subscriber  "  "is  sanguine  in  the  opinion,  that  if  sows  are  so 
placed  as  to  be  able  to  come  to  the  ground  a  few  days  before 
pigging,  no  disappointment  would  ever  happen  in  the  loss  of 
pigs.  It  is  not  convenient  to  let  them  ramble  at  large  ;  a 
temporary  pen  upon  ground  is  equally  good." 

Swine  should  not  be  kept  in  close  and  filthy  pens.  Though 
they  wallow  in  mire,  their  object  is  coolness,  not  nastiness, 
and  they  thrive  faster  and  enjoy  better  health  when  allowed 
clean  and  dry  lodgings  than  when  they  are  not  thus  accommo- 
dated. The  late  judge  Peters,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  an  arti- 
cle entitled  "Notices  for  a  Young  Farmer,"  Sic,  observed, 
that  "  there  is  no  greater  mistake  than  that  oi^  gorging  swine, 
when  first  penned  for  fattening.  They  should,  on  the  con- 
trary, be  moderately  and  frequently  fed,  so  that  they  be  kept 
full,  i3ut  do  not  loathe  or  reject  their  food,  and  in  the  end 
contract  fevers  and  dangerous  maladies,  originating  in  a  hot 
and  corrupted  mass  of  blood.  In  airy  and  roomy,  yet  mod- 
erately warm  pens,  paved  and  boarded,  and  often  cleaned, 
they  are  healthy  and  thriving.  They  show  a  disposition  to 
be  cleanly,  however  otherwise  it  is  supposed,  and  always 
leave  their  excrementitious  matter  in  a  part  of  the  pen  dis- 
tinct from  that  in  which  they  lie  down.  No  animal  will 
thrive  unless  it  be  kept  clean." 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIaiT.  165 

The  same  writer  asserted  in  substance,  that  fatting  hogs 
should  always  be  supplied  with  dry,  rotten  wood,  which 
should  be  kept  in  their  pens,  for  the  animals  to  eat  as  their 
appetites  or  instincts  may  direct.  It  has  been  supposed, 
likewise,  that  swine  thrive  the  better  when  they  can  obtain 
fresh  earth,  which  they  are  often  observed  to  swallow  with 
greediness. 

It  is  an  object  of  much  consequence  to  obtain  the  best 
breed  of  swine,  not  only  as  regards  the  saving  of  food,  but 
producing  the  best  qualities  of  flesh.  The  Hon.  Oliver  Fiske, 
of  Worcester,  as  before  observed,  has  rendered  great  ser- 
vice to  the  community,  by  introducing  to  the  notice  of  far- 
mers in  this  country  a  variety  of  this  animal  called  the 
Bedford  Breed.  This  breed  has  been  highly  recommend- 
ed by  many  who  have  ascertained  their  merits  by  trial.  His 
excellency  Levi  Lincoln,  late  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
and  president  of  the  Worcester  Agricultural  Society,  has 
given  his  opinion  of  this  variety,  in  a  letter,  from  which  the 
following  are  extracts  : 

"  I  have  great  pleasure  in  voluntarily  offering  myself  as 
your  compurgator  in  the  representations  with  which  you 
have  recently  favored  the  public,  of  the  Bedford  breed  of 
swine.  The  care  and  perseverance  which  have  marked  your 
attention  to  the  prospects  and  value  of  these  animals,  and 
the  success  which  has  followed  your  exertions  to  introduce 
them  to  the  favor  o(  practical  farmers,  require,  at  least,  an 
acknowledgment  of  obligation  from  all  those  who  have  been 
particularly  benefited  by  your  liberality,  and  from  no  one 
more  than  from  myself  This  breed  of  swine  has  taken  the 
place  of  a  long-legged,  long-nosed,  flat-sided,  thriftless  race, 
called  by  some  the  Irish  breed,  by  others  the  Russian,  which 
would  barely  pay  by  their  weight  for  ordinary  keeping,  and 
never  for  one  half  the  expense  of  fattening,  if,  indeed  grain 
would  make  them  fat. 

"  I  had  three  pigs  butchered  from  the  same  litter,  precise- 
ly seven  and  a  half  months  old.  Their  weights,  when 
dressed,  were  two  hundred  and  thirty,  two  hundred  and  thir- 
ty-five, and  two  hundred  and  thirty-eight  and  a  half  pounds. 
One  sold  in  Boston  for  six  and  one-fourth  cents  per  pound  ; 
the  others  were  put  up  here  for  family  use.  The  expense 
of  keeping  and  fattening  these  pigs,  I  am  satisfied,  was  less 
than  with  any  other  breed  I  ever  raised,  and  the  proportion 
of  bone  and  offal  to  the  valuable  parts  was  surprisingly 
small,     I  have  fifteen  more   on   my  farm,  part   designed   for 


166  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

the  market  in  the  spring,  and  part  to  be  kept  over  as  store 
swine,  and  their  appearance  will  furnish  ocular  satisfaction 
of  the  propriety  of  all  which  has  been  said  in  favor  of  the 
breed." 

This  breed  of  swine  was  .brought  to  this  country  as  a 
present  to  General  Washington,  from  the  Duke  of  Bedford, 
who  committed  them  to  the  care  of  an  English  farmer  by 
the  name  of  Parkinson.  This  man  took  a  farm  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Baltimore  ;  but  instead  of  sending  the  swine  to 
General  Washington,  Parkinson  sold  them. 

Captain  John  Mackay,  of  Boston,  has  exhibited  at  Brigh- 
ton a  peculiar  and  excellent  breed  of  swine,  which  have  re- 
peatedly received  premiums  from  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural Society. 


MANURES.  No  soil  will  always  prove  productive  with- 
out manure.  Though  naturally  fertile,  if  some  equivalent 
for  its  produce  is  not  returned  to  it  ;  if  it  is  always  yielding 
and  never  receiving,  it  must,  at  length,  become  barren. 

Particular  spots,  like  Egypt,  and  other  alluvial  or  interval 
lands,  which  are  annually  overflowed,  derive  manure  from 
the  bountiful  hand  of  nature,  and  cannot  be  rendered  barren 
by  bad  husbandry  or  continual  cropping.  Some  soils,  like- 
wise, are  not  easily  exhausted,  and  are  easily  recruited,  in 
consequence  of  being  composed  of  materials  which  attract 
and  retain  the  food  of  plants  from  air  and  water,  as  well  as 
afford  a  proper  medium  to  prepare  and  communicate  the 
principle  of  fertility. 

Every  species  of  matter  capable  of  promoting  tlie  growth 
of  vegetables  may  be  considered  as  manure.  Vegetables  are 
composed  of  certain  substances,  called  by  chemists  oxygen 
[formerly  called  vital  air],  hydrogen  [inflammable  air],  car- 
bon [coaly  matter],  and  nitrogen,  or  azote,  one  of  the  con- 
stituent parts  of  the  atmosphere.  The  substances  employed 
as  manure  should  be  composed  of  all  or  some  of  these  ele- 
ments. 

Vegetable  and  animal  substances,  deposited  in  the  soil, 
are  consumed  during  the  process  of  vegetation  ;  being 
mostly  absorbed  by  the  roots  of  plants,  combined  with  wa- 
ter. These  substances  compose  what  is  called  the  food  of 
plants.  This  food  is  mostly  taken  in  by  the  roots,  which  are 
analogous  to  the  mouths  of  animals,  but  some  portion  of  the 
nourishment  of  vegetables  is  also  derived  from  the  atmos- 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  167 

phere,  imbibed  by  the  leaves  and  bark.  Thus  the  carcas- 
ses of  lambs  and  other  small  animals  are  sometimes  hung  on 
the  limbs  of  fruit-trees  to  promote  their  growth,  and  cause 
them  to  bear  abundantly,  and  thus  produce  some  effect  ;  but 
the  practice  is  slovenly  and  wasteful,  as  the  air  is  contamin- 
ated, and  the  carcass  buried  near  the  roots  would  be  much 
more  efficient  as  manure. 

A  controversy  has  existed  relative  to  the  degree  of  fer- 
mentation which  manure  should  undergo  before  it  is  applied 
to  the  soil.  Some  agriculturists  contend  that  long,  fresh,  or 
unfermented  manure  is  to  be  preferred.  Others  assert,  that 
stable  and  barn-yard  manure  never  should  be  spread  in  the 
field  till  the  fibrous  texture  of  the  vegetable  matter  is  entire- 
ly broken  down,  and  it  becomes  perfectly  cold,  and  so  soft 
as  to  be  easily  cut  with  a  spade. 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy  observes,  "  If  the  pure  dung  of  cat- 
tle is  to  be  used  as  manure,  there  seems  no  reason  why  it 
should  be  made  to  ferment,  except  in  the  soil  ;  or  if  suffered 
to  ferment  it  should  be  only  in  a  very  slight  degree.  The 
grass  in  the  neighbourhood  of  recently  voided  dung  is  always 
coarse  and  dark  green  ;  some  persons  have  attributed  this 
to  a  noxious  quality  in  unfermented  dung  ;  but  it  seems  to 
be  rather  the  result  of  an  excess  of  food  furnished  to  the 
plants. 

"  During  the  violent  fermentation  which  is  necessary  for 
reducing  farm-yard  manure  to  the  state  of  what  is  called 
short  muck,  not  only  a  large  quantity  of  fluid,  but  likewise 
of  gaseous  matter,  is  lost  ;  so  much  so  that  the  dung  is  re- 
duced one-half  or  two-thirds  in  weight  ;  and  the  principal 
elastic  matter  disengaged,  in  carbonic  acid,  and  some  am- 
monia ;  and  both  of  these,  if  retained  by  the  moisture  of  the 
soil,  are  capable  of  becoming  useful  nourishment  of  plants. 

"  It  is  usual  to  carry  straw  that  can  be  employed  for  no 
other  purpose  to  the  dunghill,  to  ferment  and  decompose; 
but  it  is  worth  an  experiment,  whether  it  may  not  be  more 
economically  applied  when  chopped  small  by  a  proper  ma- 
chine, and  kept  dry  till  it  is  ploughed  in  for  the  use  of  the 
crop.  In  this  case,  though  it  would  decompose  much  more 
slowly  and  produce  less  efiect  at  first,  yet  its  influence  would 
be  more  lasting." 

■  Robert  Smith,  Esq.,  president  of  the  Maryland  Agricul- 
tural Society,  in  an  address  to  that  society  observed,  "  With 
respect  to  stable-dung,  I  shall  for  the  present  content  my- 
self by   barely   suggesting,  that  my  experience   strongly  in- 


168  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

clines  me  to  the  opinion  that,  however  long,  it  ought  to  be 
ploughed  into  the  ground  without  any  previous  stirring,  and 
as  soon  as  practicable  after  it  has  been  taken  from  the  farm- 
yard." 

We  believe  that  the  question  relative  to  long  and  to  short 
manure  must  depend  on  circumstances.  In  certain  soils,  and 
for  certain  crops,  long  manure  which  has  undergone  but  a 
slight  fermentation  is  to  be  preferred.  But  if  used  for  wheat, 
and  other  kinds  of  grain,  and  in  all  crops  which  cannot  con- 
veniently be  hoed  or  weeded,  or,  probably,  when  applied  to 
soils  containing  acids  or  some  substances  which  may  prevent 
fermentation  and  retard  the  progress  of  putrescence  and  dis- 
solution, it  must  be  well  rotted. 

Rotting  manure,  however,  in  a  barn-yard,  or  in  any  situa- 
tion in  which  its  volatile  and  liquid  products  escape  into  the 
atmosphere,  or  soak  into  soil  not  designed  to  support  vege- 
tation, is  very  slovenly  and  wasteful,  and  always  to  be  avoid- 
ed if  possible.  The  effluvia  or  gas  which  is  suffered  to  es- 
cape from  fermenting  manure  is  not  only  almost  altogether 
lost  to  useful  vegetation,  but,  what  is  still  worse,  fills  the  at- 
mosphere with  particles  injurious  to  health,  and  often  de- 
structive to  life.  The  evaporations  from  a  manure  yard 
rob  the  farmer  of  a  part  of  his  substance,  starve  his  crops, 
and  it  is  well  if  they  do  not,  moreover,  poison  him  and  his 
family  by  their  contaminating  influence.  Some  farmers' 
barn-yards,  hog-pens,  and  other  receptacles  of  manure,  are 
very  offensive,  and  if  they  do  not  generate  typhus  fever,  in 
its  worst  form,  which  we  fear  is  frequently  the  case,  they  at 
least  cause  a  degree  of  languor  and  debility,  which  embit- 
ters existence,  and  in  a  great  measure  disqualifies  for  any 
useful  purposes  of  life.  It  is  a  fact  that  those  exhalations  so 
injurious  to  animal  life  are  the  essence  of  vegetable  life,  and 
the  volatile  substances  which  offend  our  senses  and  injure 
our  health,  if  arrested  in  their  transit  by  the  hand  of  skil- 
ful industry,  may  be  so  modified  in  the  great  laboratory  of 
nature  as  to  greet  us  in  the  fragrance  of  a  flower,  regale 
us  in  the  plum  or  nectarine,  or  furnish  the  stamina  of  life 
in  substantial  viands  from  the  field  and  the  stall  of  the  cul- 
tivator. 

If  we  are  correct  in  the  foregoing,  an  important  axiom 
may  be  adduced,  viz.:  JVb  putrefactive  j)7'ocess  ought  to  be 
suffered  to  proceed  on  afarmer^s  premises,  without  his  adopt- 
ing some  mode  to  save,  as  far  as  possible,  the  gaseous  products 
of  such  putrescence.     These  gaseous  products  constitute  im- 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  169 

portant  elements  of  vegetable  food,  and  a  farmer  may  as 
well  suffer  his  cattle  to  stray  from  his  stall,  or  his  swine 
from  his  sty,  without  a  possibility  of  reclaiming  them,  as 
permit  the  principles  of  fertility  expelled  by  fermentation  or 
putrefaction  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere  for  the  purpose 
of  poisoning  the  air,  instead  of  feeding  the  plants.  It  is 
very  easy  to  arrest  these  particles.  A  quantity  of  earth 
thrown  over  the  matter  in  which  the  fermentation  is  going 
on  will  check  its  violence  and  arrest  its  gaseous  products, 
which  will  be  imbibed  by  the  soil,  and  afterwards  yielded  to 
plants  in  such  proportion  as  the  wants  of  vegetation  may 
require. 

"Fermentation,  that  destroyer  of  all  organic  conforma- 
tion, is  not  to  be  feared  by  the  farmer,  if  it  be  conducted 
and  carried  on  in  the  presence  of  earth,  which  fixes  and 
secures  the  gases  as  fast  as  they  are  liberated.  Even  the 
degree  of  the  process  is  a  matter  of  less  consequence  ;  be- 
cause if  the  elementary  principles  are  in  keeping,  and  re- 
served for  future  usefulness,  it  is  immaterial  whether  this 
has  happened  by  a  new  absorption,  or  by  still  holding  their 
original  and  unchanged  form.  In  his  composite  hill  [com- 
post heap],  the  whole  animal  or  vegetable  structure  may  be 
dissolved,  and  leave  behind  no  trace  of  existence,  without 
the  least  waste  of  the  principles  of  fertility  ;  because  the 
ingredients  superadded  to  the  diing  have  become  surcharged 
with  them,  or,  to  speak  philosophically,  fully  saturated.  We 
may  go  farther,  and  state  that  complete  decomposition  is 
desirable  in  this  case,  which  is  so  much  to  be  avoided  in  the 
farm-yard  ;  because  putrescent  matter  can  only  become 
vegetable  food  by  its  resolution  into  primary  parts,  and  if 
this  be  effected  by  any  preparatory  step,  the  young  crop 
receives  the  full  and  instantaneous  benefit.  The  compost 
manure  is  carried  to  the  fielti  ready  to  give  out  its  richness 
on  the  very  first  call,  and  to  supply  the  nascent  radicle 
[young  root]  with  a  copious  share  of  nourishment. 

"The  putrefactive  process  may  be  carried  on  in  the  pres- 
ence of  pure  earth  only,  or  of  earth  intermingled  with 
fibrous  roots,  or  lastly  in  the  presence  of  peat,  which  is  an 
assemblage  of  inert  vegetable  matter,  and  compost  dunghills 
may  be  formed  according  to  this  threefold  method. 

"  The  simplest  of  all  composts  is  a  mixture  of  barn-yard 

dung   and  surface   mould  taken  from  a  field  under  regular 

culture.     The  proportions  between  the  ingredients  are  fixed 

by  no  determinate  laws,  and  consequently  great  liberty  is 

15 


170  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

allowable  to  the  operator.  I  have  known  some  instances 
where  two  cart-loads  of  dung  were  used  for  one  of  earth  ; 
others,  where  they  were  blended  in  equal  quantities;,  and  it 
is  not  unfrequent  to  compound  two  of  earth  with  one  of  dung. 
In  fact,  such  is  the  uncertainty  in  the  composition,  that  al- 
most every  farmer  adopts  one  peculiar  to  himself,  and  with 
equal  success.  No  man  need  therefore  follow  implicitly  the 
rules  which  have  been  laid  down  in  this  department  of  rural 
economy,  but  may  vary  and  multiply  his  experiments,  ac- 
cording to  the  suggestions  of  fancy  or  the  dictates  of  con- 
venience. If  we  slightly  glance  at  the  principle,  we  shall 
see  the  cause  of  this  seemingly  endless  variety  in  the  com- 
binations of  the  ingredients.  The  only  use  of  intermixing 
the  soil  with  the  dung  is  to  imbibe  the  gaseous  elements  of 
vegetable  life,  and  hinder  their  dissipation.  If  there  be  much 
soil,  these  elements  will  be  diffused  through  it  with  less  den- 
sity and  compression;  if  little,  it  will  be  more  abundantly 
saturated  and  enriched  with  the  nutritive  vapors.  The  only 
error  into  which  the  farmer  can  run  is,  to  supply  such  an  in- 
considerable quantity  of  soil  as  will  be  incapable  of  im- 
bibing the  elastic  and  volatile  particles,  and  thus  by  his  own 
mismanagement  occasion  a  waste  of  the  vegetable  aliment. 
One  cart-load  of  soil  to  two  of  stable-dung  is  the  least  pro- 
portion which  he  should  ever  attempt  to  combine,  and  per- 
haps if  the  two  were  mixed  equally,  he  would  be  compensa- 
ted for  the  additional  labor  and  expense. 

"  Simple  earth,  although  excellent  for  bottoming  and 
strewing  over  the  pit  dug  near  the  barn,  is  of  all  materials 
the  most  unprofitable  in  compost  dunghills.  A  matted  sward, 
thickly  entangled  with  roots,  or  mud  dragged  from  the  bot- 
tom of  bogs  or  ditches,  and  replete  with  aquatic  plants,  are 
clearly  preferable  on  this  account,  that,  besides  bringing 
earth  to  the  composition,  they  supply  a  large  proportion  of 
vegetable  matter.  Whenever  the  soil  must  be  carted  to  the 
heap,  it  is  better  to  lay  out  the  expense  in  transporting  these 
enriching  materials  ;  because  they  will  not  only  equally  ab- 
sorb and  retain  the  evaporating  gases,  but  greatly  augment 
the  quantity  of  manure.  "* 

The  path  proper  for  a  farmer  to  pursue  in  order  to  make 
the  most  of  his  manure,  and  preserve  his  own  health  and 
that  of  his  family,  is  as  plain  as  a  turnpike.  Whenever  pu- 
trid fermentation  is  going  on  in  any  part  of  his  premises,  and 

*  Letters  of  Agricola,  by  John  Young,  Esq. 


and' RURAL  ECONOMIST.  171 

consuming  his  substance  by  a  slow  but  wasteful  combustion, 
let  him  apply  earth,  peat,  or  some  other  earthy  substance  in 
quantities  sufficient  to  attract,  imbibe,  and  retain  all  the 
effluvia.  Health,  profit,  and  cleanliness,  equally  require 
such  a  proceeding.  We  shall  say  a  word  or  two  on  the  lat- 
ter topic.  If  a  man  were  to  swallow  daily  a  quantity  of 
filthy  matter,  or  to  eat  his  food  impregnated  with  vapors  from 
a  manure  heap,  or  from  some  other  putrefying  and  offensive 
substance,  when  he  might  by  a  little  exertion  avoid  such 
nauseous  viands,  and  substitute  something  nourishing,  palat- 
able, pure,  and  wholesome,  we  should  esteem  him  no  better 
than  a  Hottentot.  But  a  man  may  almost  as  well  take  filth 
into  his  stomach  as  filthy  effluvia  into  his  lungs;  he  may 
about  as  well  dine  with  a  crow  or  a  buzzard  as  sup  with  a 
toad  "  on  the  vapor  of  a  dunghill." 

The  farmer  who  arrests  the  rank  vapors  which  emanate 
from  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  and  instead  of 
permitting  them  to  pass  into  and  contaminate  the  air  he 
breathes,  treasures  up  the  invisible  particles  with  which  they 
are  laden,  and  applies  them  to  feed  useful  vegetables,  causes 
the  atmosphere  to  be  healthy,  and  his  plants  to  be  thrifty  by 
the  same  means. 

The  celebrated  lord  Erskine,  in  a  speech  delivered  at  one 
of  the  annual  sheep-shearings  at  Holkham,  in  England, 
made  the  following  remarks  on  this  subject  : 

"  If  we  consider  the  subject  of  manure,  we  shall  perceive 
one  of  the  most  striking  beauties  and  benefits  of  divine  or- 
dination, and  of  that  wisdom  with  which  we  are  blessed  a 
thousand  ways  without  knowing  it.  This  very  substance, 
had  it  been  useless,  must  have  accumulated  in  heaps,  intoler- 
ably noisome  and  perpetually  pestilential;  but  by  the  bless- 
ing of  Providence,  it  is  every  man's  interest  to  remove  these 
otherwise  increasing  mountains  of  filth,  and  by  decomposi- 
tion, in  various  ways,  in  a  great  measure  concealed  from  us; 
it  gives  increase  to  our  fields,  and  adds  to  our  means  of 
industry,  and  the  reward  of  the  husbandman." 

Those  who  cultivate  the  ground  do  not  always  act  the 
provident  part  supposed  by  lord  Erskine,  in  the  sentence 
above  quoted.  On  the  contrary,  farmers  too  often  suffer 
manure  to  accumulate  and  waste  in  heaps,  generating 
effluvia  "  intolerably  noisome  and  perpetually  pestilential," 
without  fear  of  fever  or  famine,  both  of  which  are  courted 
by  such  conduct.  Not  only  dung  is  too  often  allowed  to 
waste  its  richness  on  the  tainted  air,  but  straw  and  other  lit- 


172  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

ter  is  suffered  to  grow  mouldy  and  consume  by  what  is 
sometimes  called  the  dry  rot,  both  of  which  might  be  pre- 
vented, or  their  bad  effects  obviated,  by  covering  or  mixing 
them  with  a  suitable  quantity  of  earth.  Besides,  dead  ani- 
mals, contents  of  privies,  the  emptyings  of  sinks,  spoiled 
provisions,  the  refuse  of  the  dairy,  the  pantry,  and  the  cellar, 
are  allowed  to  mingle  their  odours  in  nauseating  and  dele- 
terious profusion.  Sometimes  the  highway  is  rendered  al- 
most impassable,  in  consequence  of  a  dead  horse,  sheep, 
dog,  or  cat,  undergoing  the  process  of  decomposition  in  a 
situation  correctly  calculated  to  annoy  travellers.  Some 
farmers  hang  dead  lambs,  cats,  dogs,  &c.,  in  the  forks  of 
apple-trees,  or  throw  them  on  hovels  or  stumps,  at  some 
elevation  from  the  ground,  to  give  the  pestilential  emanations 
a  chance  to  diffuse  themselves,  without  coming  in  contact 
with  the  earth,  which  might  convert  them  from  poison  to 
men  and  animals  into  food  for  plants.  If,  however,  such 
animal  remains  are  deposited  in  a  barn-yard  or  manure  heap, 
they  are  too  often  suffered  to  lie  and  rot  on  the  surface, 
offending  the  senses,  and  injuring  the  health  of  a  whole  vil- 
lage. Practices  of  this  kind  are  well  reproved  by  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy,  who  says,  "  Horses,  dogs,  sheep,  deer, 
and  other  quadrupeds  that  have  died  accidentally  or  of  dis- 
eases, after  their  skins  are  separated,  are  often  suffered  to 
remain,  exposed  to  the  air,  or  immersed  in  water,  till  they 
are  destroyed  by  birds  or  beasts  of  prey,  or  entirely  de- 
composed; and  in  this  case  most  of  their  organizable  mat- 
ter is  lost  from  the  land  on  which  they  lie,  and  a  consider- 
able portion  of  it  employed  in  giving  out  noxious  gases  to 
the  atmosphere. 

"By  covering  dead  animals  with  five  or  six  times  their 
bulk  of  soil,  mixed  with  one  part  of  lime,  and  suffering  them 
to  remain  for  a  few  months,  their  decomposition  would  im- 
pregnate the  soil  with  soluble  matters,  so  as  to  render  it  an 
excellent  manure  ;  and  by  mixing  a  little  fresh  quicklime 
with  it,  at  the  time  of  its  removal,  the  disagreeable  effluvia 
will  be  in  a  great  measure  destroyed,  and  it  might  be  em- 
ployed in  the  same  way  as  any  other  manure  to  crops."* 

If,  however,  quicklime  cannot  readily  be  obtained  to  ac- 
celerate the  conversion  of  dead  animals  into  manure,  it  is 
probable  that  covering  the  carcasses  with  a  pretty  thick  coat 


*  Agricultural  Chemistry. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  173 

of  unleached  ashes,  and  placing  over  all  a  quantity  of  earth, 
or  earthy  substance,  would  hasten  decomposition,  and  secure 
the  gases  resulting  from  putrescence.  Earth  alone  will 
answer  a  valuable  purpose,  and,  in  time,  the  largest  animal 
will  be  decomposed  in  nothing  but  common  soil. 

Not  only  the  carcasses  of  animals,  but  their  excrements 
and  urine  are  rendered  of  little  value  by  long  exposure  to  the 
air.  Indeed,  every  moment  of  such  exposure  robs  them  of 
a  part  of  their  fertility,  as  well  as  contaminates  the  atmos- 
phere. "  He  who  is  within  the  sphere  of  the  scent  of  a 
dunghill,  (says  the  celebrated  Arthur  Young,)  smells  that 
which  his  crop  would  have  eaten,  if  he  would  have  permitted 
it.  Instead  of  manuring  the  land,  he  manures  the  atmos- 
phere ;  and  before  his  dunghill  is  finished,  he  has  manured 
another  parish,  perhaps  another  county."  As  few  exhala- 
tions as  possible  ought  to  be  suffered  to  rise  from  the  excre- 
ments of  animals.  Fresh  manure  ought  to  be  kept  as  care- 
fully from  the  sun  and  rain  as  grass  which  has  been  cut  for 
hay.  When  cattle  have  been  yarded  over  night,  it  would 
be  well  to  throw  their  droppings  into  small  heaps  or  beds, 
and  cover  them  at  least  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  earth  to 
prevent  fermentation,  or  absorb  its  products.  This  would 
cost  but  little  labor,  and  would  much  enhance  the  value  of 
the  manure. 

It  has  been,  and  we  believe  in  some  instances  still  is,  in 
vogue  among  farmers,  to  turn  over  and  mix  barn-yard  ma- 
nure several  times  before  it  is  carried  to  the  field.  This 
practice,  however,  is  exploded  among  the  best  informed  cul- 
tivators. Mr.  A.  Young  says  "no  turning,  but  if  circum- 
stances of  the  richness,  quantity,  or  weather  have  occasion- 
ed too  much  fermentation,  or  this  is  suspected,  scatter  every 
now  and  then  a  quantity  of  the  same  earth  over  the  surface, 
with  which  the  yard  was  bedded.  This  may  be  so  propor- 
tioned as  to  keep  the  mass  from  too  much  fermentation." 

It  is  remarked  by  the  author  of  "  Letters  of  Agricola,"  that 
"Earth  is  a  powerful  absorber  of  all  the  gases  which  arise 
from  putrefaction.  The  earth  possesses  not  only  the  prop- 
erty of  retaining  the  putrid  steams  which  are  formed  from 
the  dung  of  decomposing  bodies  within  itself,  but  also  of 
attracting  the  efHuvia  when  floating  in  the  air.  The  salu- 
brity of  a  country  depends  on  this  latter  quality  ;  as  the 
practice  of  burying  the  dung  in  the  earth  is  founded  on  the 
former.  The  stench  proceeding  from  the  dissolution  of 
organized  matter  never  rises  through  the  ground  to  assail 
15* 


174  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

the  nostrils,  although  it  is  sufficiently  offensive  from  bodies 
corrupting  in  air  or  water.  A  strongly  dunged  field,  after 
being  ploughed,  sown,  and  harrowed,  sends  forth  a  health- 
ful and  refreshing  smell;  a  proof  that  all  the  putrid  vapors, 
which  otherwise  would  annoy  us,  are  absorbed  and  retained 
for  the  nutrition  of  the  crop.  It  is  on  this  account  that  the 
poorest  earth  can  be  enriched  in  a  very  high  degree  by  mere 
exposure  to  the  gases  of  putrefaction.  Put  a  layer  of  com- 
mon soil  along  the  top  of  a  fermenting  dunghill,  from  twelve 
to  eighteen  inches  thick,  and  allow  it  to  remain  there  while 
the  process  is  carrying  on  with  activity,  and  afterwards 
separate  it  carefully  from  the  heap,  and  it  will  have  been 
impregnated  with  the  most  fertilizing  virtues.  The  com- 
posts, which  of  late  have  attracted  such  universal  attention, 
and  occupied  so  large  a  place  in  all  agricultural  publications, 
originated  in  the  discovery  of  this  absorbing  power  of  the 
earth,  and  in  the  application  of  it  to  the  most  beneficial  of 
purposes.  A  skilful  agriculturist  would  no  more  think  of 
allowing  a  violent  fermentation  to  be  going  on  in  his  dung- 
hill, unmixed  with  earth  or  other  matter  to  fix  and  secure 
the  gaseous  elements,  than  the  distiller  would  suffer  his  ap- 
paratus to  be  set  at  work  without  surmounting  his  still  with 
the  worm  to  cool  and  condense  the  rarefied  spirit  which 
ascends  to  evaporation.  In  both  the  most  precious  matter 
is  that  which  assumes  the  ceriform  state;  and  to  behold  it 
escaping,  with  unconcerned  indifference,  is  a  demonstration 
of  the  most  profound  ignorance." 

Liquid  Manure.  Water  in  its  purest  state,  when  it  has 
been  distilled  or  filtered  through  sand,  still  retains  somewhat 
of  the  food  of  plants.  Its  component  parts,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen,  under  certain  circumstances,  are  seized  by  vegeta- 
bles while  in  their  growing  state,  and  converted  into  the  pro- 
ducts which  form  the  constituents  of  all  vegetables.  But 
pure  water  forms  a  meagre  diet  for  plants.  It  may  support 
life  in  vegetables,  and  some  plants  will  maintain  a  feeble 
growth  with  very  little  nourishment  except  what  is  afforded 
them  by  pure  water  and  air.  But  when  water  is  impregnat- 
ed with  certain  salts  and  gases,  particularly  such  as  are 
evolved  during  the  fermentation  and  decomposition  of  vege- 
table and  animal  substances,  it  becomes  what  is  called  liquid 
manure.  Urine,  or  the  stale  of  all  animals,  is  water  holding 
in  solution  certain  salts  and  other  substances,  which  are 
the  essence  of  manure,  or  the  food  of  plants  in  a  concentrated 
stale. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  175 

Fresh  urine  is  a  very  powerful  and  efficacious  manure, 
when  properly  applied,  but  if  not  mixed  with  solid  matter  it 
should  be  diluted  with  water,  as  when  pure  it  contains  too 
large  a  quantity  of  animal  matter  to  form  a  proper  fluid 
nourishment  for  absorption  by  the  roots  of  plants.  Urine  is 
lessened  in  value,  but  its  useful  qualities  are  not  entirely 
lost,  by  putrescence.  During  putrefaction  the  greatest  part 
of  the  soluble  animal  matter  that  urine  contains  is  destroy- 
ed; it  should  therefore  be  used  as  fresh  as  possible,  with  the 
precaution  of  diluting  it  with  water,  or  mixing  it  with  earth. 
Putrid  urine,  however,  is  a  valuable  manure.  It  abounds  in 
ammoniacal  salts;  and  though  less  active  than  fresh  urine, 
is  very  efficacious.* 

According  to  some  writers  and  practical  farmers,  the 
vahie  of  the  urine  of  cattle,  if  properly  preserved  and  applied 
to  the  purposes  of  vegetation,  is  greater  than  that  of  all  the 
dung  which  the  same  animals  would  yield  !  A  letter  from 
Charles  Alexander,  near  Peebles,  in  Scotland,  addressed  to 
Sir.  John  Sinclair,  in  1812,  contains  much  valuable  informa- 
tion on  this  subject.  "  This  intelligent  farmer  had  long  been 
impressed  with  the  great  importance  of  the  urine  of  cattle 
as  a  manure,  and  he  set  about  to  discover,  by  a  long  and 
well-conducted  series  of  experiments,  the  best  method  of 
collecting  and  applying  it.  He  began  by  digging  a  pit 
contiguous  to  the  feeding-stall,  but  distinct  altogether  from 
that  which  was  appropriated  for  the  reception  of  the  dung. 
The  dimensions  of  this  pit,  were  thirty-six  feet  square  and 
four  feet  deep,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  wall  ;  and  the 
solid  contents  were  one  hundred  and  ninety-two  yards. 
Having  selected  the  nearest  spot  where  he  could  find  loamy 
earth,  and  this  he  always  took  from  the  surface  of  some  field 
under  cultivation,  he  proceeded  to  fill  it;  and  found  that, 
%vith  three  men  and  two  horses,  he  could  easily  accomplish 
twenty-eight  cubic  yards  per  day;  and  the  whole  expense  of 
transporting  the  earth  did  not  exceed  twenty-two  dollars. 
When  the  work  was  complete,  he  levelled  the  surface  of  the 
heap  in  a  line  with  the  sewer  which  conducted  the  urine  from 
the  interior  of  the  building,  on  purpose  that  it  might  be 
distributed  with  regularity,  and  might  saturate  the  whole 
from  top  to  bottom.  The  quantity  conveyed  to  it  he  esti- 
mates at  about  eight  hundred  gallons.  The  urine  was  sup- 
plied by  fourteen  cattle,  kept  there  for  five  months  on  fodder 

*  See  Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry. 


176  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

and  turnips.  The  contents  of  the  pit  produced  two  hundred 
and  eighty-eight  loads,  allowing  two  cubic  yards  to  be  taken 
out  in  three  carts  ;  and  he  spread  forty  of  these  on  each 
acre,  so  that  this  urine  in  five  months,  produced  a  compost 
sufficient  for  the  fertilization  of  seven  acres  of  land.  He 
states  farther,  that  he  had  tried  this  experiment  for  ten 
years,  and  had  indiscriminately  used  in  the  same  field  either 
the  rotted  cow-dung  or  the  saturated  earth;  and  in  all  stages 
of  the  crop,  he  had  never  been  able  to  find  any  perceptible 
difference.  But  what  is  still  more  wonderful,  he  found  his 
compost  lasted  in  its  effects  as  many  years  as  his  best 
putrescent  manure;  and  he  therefore  boldly  avers,  that  a 
load  of  each  is  of  equivalent  value. 

"  It  appears,  then,  that  in  five  months  each  cow  dis- 
charges urine  which,  when  absorbed  by  loam,  furnishes 
manure  of  the  richest  quality  and  most  durable  effects  for 
half  an  acre  of  ground.  The  dung-pit,  which  contained  all 
the  e.xcrementitious  matter  of  the  fourteen  cattle,  as  well  as 
the  litter  employed  in  bedding  them,  and  which  was  kept 
separate  for  the  purpose  of  the  experiment,  only  furnished, 
during  the  same  period,  two  hundred  and  forty  loads,  and 
these,  at  the  same  rate,  could  only  manure  six  acres.  The 
aggregate  value  of  the  urine,  therefore,  when  compared 
with  that  of  the  dung,  was  in  the  ratio  of  seven  to  six."* 

We  apprehend  that  the  farmers  of  the  United  States  are 
not,  generally  speaking,  careful  to  turn  the  urine  of  their 
cattle  to  account  for  manure.  There  are  some  cultivators, 
however,  who  have  taken  measures  to  secure  this  substance, 
and  to  apply  it  to  useful  purposes.  Mr.  Robert  Smith,  of 
Baltimore,  has  his  stables  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that 
all  the  liquid  discharges  of  his  cattle  are  conducted,  togeth- 
er with  the  wash  of  the  barn-yard,  into  a  cistern,  pumped 
into  a  hogshead,  and  applied  in  a  liquid  state  to  the  soil 
M'hich  it  is  wished  to  manure. j"  This  mode  of  making  use 
of  this  substance  is  likewise  recommended  in  the  "  Code  of 
Agriculture,"  as  follows:  "The  advantages  of  irrigating  grass 
lands  with  cow  urine  almost  exceed  belief  Mr.  Harley,  of 
Glasgow,  (who  keeps  a  large  dairy  in  that  town,)  by  using 
cow  urine,  cuts  some  small  fields  of  grass  six  times,  and  the 
average  of  each  cutting  is  fifteen  inches  in  length.  There 
are  disadvantages,  however,  attending  this  mode  of  applying 
this  powerful  manure.     It  must  be  applied  soon  after  it  is 

*  LeUers  of  Agiicola.        f  See  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  I.  No.  6.  p.  44. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  177 

formed,  or  oftentimes  the  putrefactive  process  will  com- 
mence, and  deprive  it  of  a  part  of  its  efficacy.  And  as 
urine  is  of  a  scorching  quality,  it  is  unsafe  to  apply  it  to 
growing  crops  in  great  heat  or  drought.  Hence  it  is  un- 
advisable  to  use  it,  except  for  grass,  after  the  month  of  April 
or  May,  unless  diluted.  It  is  particularly  useful  in  the 
spring,  when  the  application  of  liquid  manure  gives  a  new 
impetus  to  the  plant,  and  makes  its  growth  more  vigorous. 
This  manure  forces  newly  planted  cabbages  in  a  most 
remarkable  manner." 

If  it  be  true  that  more  manure  can  be  obtained  from  the 
stale  of  cattle  than  from  their  dung  and  litter,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  seven  to  six,  (as  would  seem  by  Mr.  Alexander's  ex- 
periments as  above  detailed,)  and  that  by  our  common  modes 
of  husbandry  this  stale  is  nearly  or  quite  squandered  away, 
the  discovery  is  of  very  great  importance  indeed  to  agricul- 
ture. It  is  nothing  less  than  a  method  by  which  farmers 
may,  with  a  small  expense,  somewhat  more  than  double  their 
usual  quantity  of  stable  manure.  And  if  farmers  should 
"  value  manure  as  a  miser  does  his  strong  box,  should  grasp 
after  and  hoard  it  as  eagerly  and  anxiously  as  a  covetous 
man  accumulates  treasure,"*  surely  the  wise  cultivator  will 
not  grudge  some  labor  and  expense  to  acquire  more  than 
double  the  usual  quantity  of  so  valuable  an  article.  It  is 
very  true  there  are  many  things  to  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion in  all  these  economical  processes.  A  principal  inquiry 
should  ever  be,  whether  the  saving  will  cost  more  than  the 
benefit  arising  from  it  will  be  worth.  Many  improvements 
which  are  highly  valuable  in  old  and  populous  countries, 
where  labor  is  cheap  and  land  dear,  cannot  be  advantage- 
ously adopted  in  this  country, where  the  object,  in  general,  is 
rather  to  make  the  most  of  our  labor  than  of  our  land.  It 
is  to  be  recollected,  likewise,  that  in  New  England,  during 
a  considerable  part  of  the  time  in  which  cattle  are  usually 
housed,  the  liquid  manure  is  soon  converted  into  ice,  and  in 
that  state  must  be  transferred  to  the  dung-heap,  or  inconve- 
nient accumulations  will  take  place  before  a  thaw  would 
render  it  practicable  to  separate  the  liquid  from  the  solid 
parts  of  the  manure.  Still,  with  all  these  disadvantages,  we 
believe,  in  most  cases,  it  is  highly  advisable  to  preserve  the 
liquid  portion  of  stable  manure  separate  from  the  solid  part; 

*  These  expressions,  we  believe,  belong  to  the  Hon.   Mr.  Peters,  of  Penn- 
eylvaoia,  but  we  do  not  recollect  where  we  found  them. 


178  THE    COMPLETE  FARMER 

especially  where  cattle  are  soiled  or  horses  stabled  during 
all  or  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

Manure  for  Grass  Grounds,  Top-dressings,  Sfc.  An  in- 
telligent and  scientific  cultivator  has  given  the  following 
directions  on  this  subject. 

There  is  scarcely  any  question  on  which  farmers  are 
more  divided  than  as  to  the  policy  of  applying  manure  as  a 
top-dressing  to  grass  lands,  in  the  spring  or  tall.  The  rea- 
soning seems  to  be  in  favor  of  spring  dressing,  and  it  is  sup- 
ported by  many  excellent  names.  But  it  ought  to  be  known, 
t^at  intelligent  farmers  near  the  metropolis  most  generally 
dress  their  lands  in  autumn.  Besides  the  reason  stated 
above,  that  grass  lands  are  less  injured  by  carting  over  them 
in  the  fall,  it  may  be  added,  that  it  is  a  season  of  greater 
leisure  ;  and  although  it  is  confidently  asserted,  that  the 
manure  is  wasted  by  rains  and  snows,  yet  much  ought  to  be 
allowed  on  the  other  side  for  the  protection  afforded  by  the 
top-dressing  to  the  tender  roots  of  the  plants  during  winter; 
and  ought  we  not  to  add  something  for  the  low  temperature 
of  the  atmosphere  in  winter,  which  prevents  evaporation  ? 
Whatever  principles  of  fertility  exist  in  manure,  are  in  win- 
ter carried  down  into  the  soil.  We  are  fully  convinced  that 
a  scorching  sun  and  drying  air  are  more  pernicious  to  ma- 
nures spread  thinly  over  the  surface  than  any  drenching 
rains  can  be,  unless  on  declivities,  where  top-dressings  are 
unquestionably  of  less  value  than  on  level  grounds.  The  fact 
that  farmers  who  grow  rich  by  supplying  the  great  towns 
with  hay  generally  adopt  the  practice  of  fall-dressing  their 
grass  lands,  deserves  weight. 

Top-dressing  should  not  be  used  in  the  fall  for  winter 
grain,  because  they  would  be  apt  to  make  the  young  plants 
come  forward  too  fast  and  grow  so  rank  that  they  would  be 
liable  to  be  winter-killed.  Top-dressing  for  wheat,  rye,  &c. 
should  be  applied  to  the  growing  crop  in  the  spring  or  early 
in  the  summer,  when  it  is  suspected  that  the  land  is  not  rich 
enough  to  bring  a  full  crop  to  perfection. 

With  regard  to  the  materials  for  dressing  your  grass 
grounds,  afler  your  garden  is  supplied  with  manure,  you  may 
as  well  cart  on  to  your  mowing  land  all  that  you  can  collect 
from  your  barn-yards,  your  stercoraries  or  dung-heaps,  hog- 
pens, compost  beds,  night  soil,  &c.  All  sorts  of  dung,  how- 
ever, before  being  applied  to  grass  land,  should  be  well 
mixed  with  loam,  sand,  or  some  kind  of  earth  which  will 
imbibe  the  gas  or  effluvia  of  the  dung  or  putrescent  manure. 


AND  UUKAL   ECONOMIST.  179 

We  have  said  before,  in  substance,  that  all  kinds  of  putres- 
cent manure  (that  is,  those  animal  or  vegetable  substances 
which  are  liable  to  putrefy,  mould,  and  be  wasted  when  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  and  air)  are  in  a  great  measure  thrown 
away,  if  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  before  being  made 
into  compost.  *  "  Spreading  putrescent  substances  upon  the 
surface  of  a  field  of  grass  ground,  is  to  manure,  not  the  soil, 
but  the  atmosphere  ;  and  is  justly  condemned  as  the  most 
injudicious  plan  that  can  be  devised,  in  an  arable  district." "f 
If  dung  not  made  into  compost  nor  mixed  with  earth  or  any 
substance  which  will  attract  and  imbibe  its  gas,  effluvia,  vo- 
latile products,  or  (to  be  more  plain)  that  which  causes  it  to 
smell  unpleasantly,  be  applied  to  a  field  of  plough  land,  it 
ought  to  be  spread  evenly  and  ploughed,  or  at  least  harrowed 
in  immediately.  If  a  farmer's  chief  dependence  is  in  graz- 
ing land,  and  he  has  dung,  or  putrescent  manure  not  made 
into  compost,  to  apply,  we  would  suggest  it  for  his  consider- 
ation whether  it  might  not  be  well,  first  to  spread  his  dung 
as  evenly  as  possible  over  his  field,  and  then  spread  over  the 
whole  at  least  an  equal  quantity  of  good  earth  or  loam.  By 
such  means  a  compost  is  made  in  the  field  after  the  putres- 
cent manure  is  applied,  and  the  earth  or  loam  spread  over 
the  dung  will  not  only  absorb  its  gaseous  products,  but  in  a 
great  measure  protect  it  from  being  dried  by  the  air  or 
scorched  by  the  sun,  till  its  fertilizing  qualities  are  dissipated. 
This  method  of  managing  with  top-dressing  for  grass  land, 
however,  we  should  suggest  merely  as  an  expedient  for  the 
saving  of  labor  in  cases  where  farmers  have  much  dung,  but 
little  plough  land  in  proportion,  and  with  whom  the  saving 
of  labor  is  a  very  great  object.  As  a  general  rule,  the  fol- 
lowing maxim  of  Sir  John  Sinclair  will  apply  as  well  in  this, 
country  as  in  Great  Britain.  "  There  are  strong  objections 
to  the  application  of  dung  to  grass  lands  ;  (much  of  its 
strength  being  evaporated,  from  its  being  exposed  to  atmos- 
pheric influence  ;)  composts  are  greatly  to  be  fref erred.  They 
may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  from  thirty  to  forty  cubic  yards 
per  acre.  To  keep  grass  land  in  good  condition,  a  dressing 
to  this  amount  is  required  every  four  years.  The  applica- 
tion of  unmixed  putrescent  manure  will  thus  be  rendered 
unnecessary." 

The  mode  in  which  some  farmers  manage  with  regard  to 
manuring  their  grass  lands  is  not  only  absurd,  but  ruinous. 
Early  in  the  fall  they  cart  their  dung  from  their  barn-yards 

*  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  I  p.  321.  f  Code  of  Agriculture. 


180  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

and  sties,  which  perhaps  had  been  a  year  or  more  accumu- 
lating, and  of  course  is  finely  pulverized  and  ready  to  take 
the  wings  of  every  breeze.  Tiiey  place  it  on  a  tough  sward 
in  little  heaps  about  the  size  of  a  two  bushel  basket.  The 
sun,  high  winds,  rain,  and  drying  atmosphere,  all  conspire 
to  rob  these  little  heaps  of  nearly  all  their  fertilizing  quali- 
ties, and  leave  little  but  a  dead  mass  of  matter  as  "  dry  as  a 
husk."  Late  in  the  spring,  and  generally  during  or  just  be- 
fore a  dry  time,  Mr.  Cultivator  spreads  these  little  heaps 
(reduced  by  exposure  to  wind  and  weather  to  about  the  size 
of  a  half  bushel  measure)  over  the  sward.  If  the  season 
proves  dry,  the  manure,  particularly  that  part  which  was 
collected  from  the  stye,  has  scarcely  any  other  effect  than  to 
assist  the  sun  in  scorching  the  grass.  In  the  mean  time  the 
arable  land,  being  left  destitute  of  manure  for  the  sake  of 
dunging  the  grass  ground,  yields  not  half  a  crop.  The  poor 
farmer  believes  his  land  worn  out,  and  thinks  it  high  time  to 
"  pluck  up  stakes  and  be  off"  to  the  Ohio  !  " 

Unless  you  have  plenty  of  manure,  you  had  better  not  ap- 
ply any  dung  to  your  high,  gravelly,  or  sandy  soils,  but  dress 
them  with  plaster  of  Paris.  Uneven  grass  grounds  will  not 
admit  of  top-dressing  to  any  advantage,  on  account  of  the 
manure's  being  liable  to  be  washed  away. 

Previous  to  manuring  your  grass  lands,  it  will  be  well  to 
harrow  or  scarify  them.  "  Rolling  was  formerly  considered 
to  be  indispensable  in  the  management  of  grass  lands,  tend- 
ing to  smooth  and  consolidate  the  surface,  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  ant-hills,  and  to  render  the  effects  of  drought 
less  pernicious.  But  scarifying  the  turf  with  a  plough,  con- 
sisting only  of  coulters,  or  with  a  harrow  so  that  the  whole 
surface  may  be  cut  or  torn,  is  to  be  recommended  when  the 
pastures  [or  mowing  land]  are  hidebound.  That  tenacious 
state,  rolling  tends  to  increase  ;  whereas  by  scarifying,  the 
surface  is  loosened,  and  the  roots  acquire  new  means  of  im- 
proved vegetation.  This  operation  seems  particularly  use- 
ful when  it  precedes  the  manuring  of  grass  lands  ;  for  if 
well  scarified,  the  ground  is  so  opened,  that  any  manure 
spread  upon  it  gets  at  once  to  the  roots  ;  consequently  a 
small  quantity  thus  applied,  goes  as  far  as  a  larger  one  laid 
on  in  the  old  mode,  and  without  such  an  operation.  Thus 
the  force  of  the  objections  to  the  application  of  putrescent 
manure  to  grass  lands  is  in  some  degree  obviated."*     After 

♦  Code  of  Agriculture. 


AND   nURAL   ECONOMIST.  181 

such  process  it  may  be  well  to  sow  grass  seeds,  to  produce,  a 
new  set  of  plants,  and  supersede  the  necessity  of  breaking 
up  the  soil  to  prevent  its  being  "  bound  out,'''  as  the  phrase  is. 

It  is  a  bad  practice  to  feed  your  mowing  land  very  closely 
in  the  fall.  There  should  be  enough  of  the  after-grass  left 
to  protect  the  roots  of  the  grass  against  the  frosts  of  winter. 
We  have  known  good  farmers  who  would  not  suffer  their 
mowing  land  to  be  pastured  at  any  time  of  the  year.  But 
if  the  soil  be  well  dressed  with  manure  it  can  do  but  little  or 
any  injury  to  pasture  it  in  the  fore  part  of  autumn,  taking 
care  not  to  let  cattle  run  upon  it  when  wet,  and  so  soft  that 
they  would  make  much  impression  on  it  with  their  feet. 

Manure  from  Sivinc.  Very  valuable  manure,  with  a  little 
attention,  may  be  obtained  from  swine  by  methods  similar  to 
that  described  by  a  writer  for  "  The  New  England  Farmer," 
(Vol.  II.  p.  178,)  as  follows: 

"  I  usually  keep  and  fatten  four  hogs  in  a  year.  These  I 
keep  confined  in  a  yard  twenty  feet  square,  with  a  warm  and 
convenient  shed  attached  thereto  as  a  shelter  for  them  during 
the  night  time,  and  in  cold  and  stormy  weather.  Into  llieir 
yard  I  put  the  scrapings  of  ditches,  the  dirt  which  is  con- 
tinually collecting  in  and  about  the  dwellinghouse  and  other 
buildings,  together  with  the  straw  with  which  they  are  lit- 
tered, frequently  clearing  it  out  of  their  house  and  granting 
them  a  fresh  supply.  During  the  summer  season  I  often 
throw  in  large  quantities  of  weeds,  brakes,  and  other  rubbish 
that  may  come  to  hand,  which  helps  to  increase  both  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  manure.  In  this  way  I  make 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  loads  of  manure  in  a  year,  which 
answers  a  more  valuable  purpose  than  that  which  I  take  from 
the  stable  or  barn-yard. 

"  I  planted  a  field  containing  two  acres  with  corn.  One 
half  of  the  piece  was  manured  in  the  hill  with  ten  loads  from 
the  hogpen,  the  other  half  with  the  same  quantity  of  the 
best  manure  the  barn-yard  afforded.  A  visible  difference 
was  to  be  seen  in  the  growth  of  the  corn  through  the  sea- 
son, and  at  the  time  of  harvest  the  difference  was  still  more 
discernible.  That  part  manured  from  the  hogpen  produced 
ears  generally  much  larger  than  that  manured  from  the  barn- 
yard, a  great  proportion  of  the  stalks  bearing  two,  and  many 
of  them  three  ears  each.  Having  harvested  and  measured 
my  corn,  I  found  the  result  to  be  as  follows  :  the  produce  of 
the  part  manured  from  the  hogpen  fifty  bushels,  while  that 
IG 


182  THE    COMPLETE   FARMER 

of  the  other  part  was  but  forty-two  bushels,  making  a  differ- 
ence of  eight  bushels  in  favor  of  the  former. 

Manures  may  be  divided  into  two  classes.  The  one  is 
called  animal  and  vegetable  or  putrescent  manures.  They 
consist  of  decayed  and  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances. The  other  class  is  denominated  fossil  manures. 
The  last  mentioned  do  not  properly  constitute  the  food  of 
plants,  although  they  enter  into  the  composition  of  vegeta- 
bles in  minute  quantities.  Fossil  manures  stimulate  plants, 
and  cause  them  to  take  their  food  faster  than  they  otherwise 
would.  They  are  like  what  medical  men  call  condiments, 
and  answer  the  same  purpose,  as  respects  the  economy  of 
vegetables,  which  salt,  pepper,  spices,  kc.  effect  as  regards 
the  animal  economy. 

The  principal  fossil  manures  are  lime,  gypsum,  and  marl. 
We  shall  make  a  few  observations  on  each. 

1.  Advantages  of  Lime.  Though  there  are  exceptions  to 
the  rule,  yet,  in  general,  it  may  be  confidently  asserted,  that, 
unless  where  a  soil  has  by  nature  enough  of  calcareous 
matter  in  its  composition  for  the  purposes  of  vegetation,  it 
can  neither  be  brought  into  its  most  fertile  states,  nor  will 
other  manures  be  so  useful  as  they  ought,  if  lime  or  some 
other  calcareous  earth  be  not  previously  applied.  By  lime 
spread  upon  a  moory  soil,  good  herbage  is  produced  where 
nothing  but  heath  and  unpalatable  grasses  grew  before.  By 
the  same  means,  grass  lands,  instead  of  yielding  nothing  but 
bent,  and  other  inferior  grasses,  have  been  covered  with  those 
of  a  more  valuable  description.  The  utility  of  lime  to  tur- 
nips is  so  great,  that,  though  in  the  same  field,  where  no 
lime  had  been  applied  the  crop  died  away,  yet  in  the  limed 
part  the  turnips  flourished  with  unabated  vigor.  On  the 
Mendip  lands  in  Somerset,  by  the  application  of  lime,  the 
value  of  land  was  raised  from  four  shillings  to  thirty  shillings 
per  acre  ;  and  dung,  which  previous  to  liming  had  no  sensi- 
ble effect,  operated  after  its  application  as  on  other  lands. 
Macclesfield  forest  in  Cheshire,  and  vast  tracts  in  the  north- 
ern and  more  elevated  parts  of  Derbyshire  and  adjacent  dis- 
tricts, have  been  astonishingly  improved  by  the  same  means. 
The  rye  lands  of  Herefordshire  in  1636  refused  to  produce 
wheat,  peas,  or  vetches  ;  but  since  the  introduction  of  lime, 
they  have  been  so  fertilized,  as  to  be  successfully  applied  to 
the  growth  of  every  species  of  corn.  In  maiden  soils  of  a 
tolerable  quality,  the  richest  manure  will  not  enable  them  to 
bring   any   crops,   but   those   of  oats   or    rye,   to   maturity  ; 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  183 

whereas,  if  they  receive  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lime,  crops 
of  peas,  barley,  or  wheat,  may  be  raised  to  advantage.  The 
benefit  resulting  from  the  use  of  lime  has  been  indisputably 
proved  in  the  same  farm  ;  for  the  richer  parts  that  were  left 
unlimed  were  uniformly  inferior  in  produce  to  the  poorer  that 
had  been  limed,  during  a  period  of  not  less  than  twenty-one 
years,  under  the  same  course  of  management. 

2.  The  principles  on  which  lime  operates  as  a  manure. 
Quicklime  in  powder,  or  dissolved  in  water,  is  injurious  to 
plants  ;  hence  grass  watered  with  lime-water  is  destroyed. 
But  lime  freshly  burnt,  or  slacked,  forms  a  compost  with 
vegetable  matter,  which  is  soluble  in  water,  and  nutritive  to 
plants.  Mild  lime  (as  chalk,  or  quicklime  again  impregnat- 
ed with  carbonic  acid)  chiefly  operates  by  improving  the 
texture  of  the  soil  and  its  relation  to  absorption. 

3.  The  varioxis  sorts  of  Limestone.  Sometimes  limestone 
is  almost  perfectly  pure,  as  is  the  case  with  marble,  which 
frequently  contains  scarcely  any  other  substance  but  calcare- 
ous matter.  Several  sorts  of  limestone,  however,  have  mix- 
tures of  clay  and  sand,  in  various  proportions,  by  which  the 
efficacy  of  the  manure,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  these 
substances,  is  considerably  diminished.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  analyze  limestone,  to  ascertain  the  proportion 
of  pure  lime,  before  it  is  advisable  to  use  so  expensive  an 
article  in  great  quantities,  more  especially  if  it  must  be  con- 
veyed from  a  distance.  Bituminous  limestone  makes  good 
manure.  But  the  magnesian  is  the  species  which  requires 
the  greatest  attention.  Limestone  sometimes  contains  from 
20.3  to  23.5  of  magnesia,  in  which  case  it  would  be  injurious 
to  weak  soils  to  apply  more  than  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
bushels  per  statute  acre,  though  in  rich  soils  double  that 
quantity  may  be  used,  and  still  more  with  peat,  on  which 
soil  it  would  have  a  most  powerful  effect  in  producing  fer- 
tility. 

4.  Mode  of  preparing  it  for  use.  Limestone  is  burnt  in 
kilns  of  various  constructions.  It  is  applied  with  advantage 
to  soils  recently  reclaimed  in  a  caustic  state  ;  but  is  gene- 
rally slacked,  by  throwing  water  upon  the  lumps,  until  they 
crack  and  swell,  and  fall  down  into  a  fine  powder.  This 
operation,  when  it  is  to  be  done,  should  not  be  delayed  ;  for 
if  properly  burnt,  calcined  lime  is  easily  reduced  into  a  fine 
powder,  which  may  not  be  the  case  if  the  slacking  be  post- 
poned. If  water  cannot  easily  be  obtained,  the  lumps  may 
either  be  divided  into  small  heaps  and  covered  with  earth, 


184  THE   COMPLETE   FARxMER 

by  the  moisture  of  which  they  are  soon  pulverized,  or  made 
into  large  heaps,  the  lumps  and  earth  six  inches  thick,  and 
the  whole  covered  with  earth.  Where  it  can  easily  be  had, 
it  is  a  great  advantage  to  slack  the  calcined  limestone  for 
manure  with  sea-water  or  urine.  When  applied  to  land  in 
a  powdery  state,  lime  tends  to  bring  any  hard  vegetable 
matter  that  the  soil  contains  into  a  more  rapid  state  of  de- 
composition and  solution,  so  as  to  render  it  a  proper  food  for 
plants. 

5.  Application.  Summer  is  the  proper  season  for  liming 
land.  That  experienced  farmer,  Mr.  Rennie  of  Phantassie, 
is  of  opinion,  that  the  most  profitable  period  for  applying 
lime  is  when  the  land  is  under  summer  fallow,  in  the  months 
of  June  and  July,  that  it  may  be  completely  mixed  with  the 
soil  before  the  crop  is  sown.  This  is  also  the  general  prac- 
tice in  other  districts.  For  a  turnip  crop,  it  should  be  laid 
on  early  in  the  spring  before  the  turnips  are  drilled,  in  order 
that  the  lime  may  be  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil, 
by  the  ploughings  and  harrowings  it  will  receive  ;  the  land 
will  thus  have  time  to  cool,  and  the  lime  will  not  dry  up  the 
moisture  necessary  for  bringing  the  turnips  into  leaf.  For 
potatoes,  lime  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as  it  is  apt  to  burn 
and  blister  their  skins.  When  applied  to  old  ley,  it  is  a  good 
practice  to  spread  it  on  the  surface  previously  to  the  land 
being  broken  up,  by  which  it  is  fixed  firmly  on  the  sward. 
One  year  has  been  found  of  use  ;  but  when  done  three 
years  before,  it  had  produced  still  greater  advantages  ;  in 
the  former  case,  the  increase  of  oats  being  only  at  the  rate 
of  six  to  one,  and  in  the  latter,  that  of  ten  to  one  of  the  seed 
sown.  The  quantity  applied  must  vary  according  to  the 
soil.  From  two  hundred  and  forty  to  three  hundred  bushels 
of  unslacked  lime  may  be  applied  on  strong  lands  with  ad- 
vantage. Even  six  hundred  bushels  have  been  laid  on  at 
once,  on  strong  clays,  with  great  success.  On  light  soils,  a 
much  smaller  quantity  will  answer,  say  from  one  hundred 
and  fifty  to  two  hundred  bushels  ;  but  these  small  doses 
ought  to  be  more  frequently  repeated.  When  applied  on 
the  surface  of  bogs  or  moors,  the  quantity  used  is  very  con- 
siderable, and  the  more  that  is  laid  on,  the  greater  the  im- 
provement. The  real  quantity,  however,  of  calcareous  mat- 
ter used,  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  stone.  It  often 
happens,  that  five  chaldrons  do  not  furnish  more  effective  ma- 
nure than  three,  because  they  do  not  contain  three-fifths  of 
calcareous  matter. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  186 

6.  Effects  of  lAnie.  Many  farmers  have  subjected  them- 
selves to  an  expense  at  the  rate  of  ten  shillings  per  acre  per 
annum  for  the  lime  they  used,  and  have  been  amply  remu- 
nerated. The  benefit  derived  in  the  cultivation  of  green 
crops  is  sufficient  for  that  purpose.  Such  crops  may  be 
raised  by  large  quantities  of  dung  ;  but  where  calcareous 
substances  are  applied,  it  is  proved,  by  long  exp3rience,  that 
a  less  quantity  of  animal  and  vegetable  manure  will  answer 
the  purpose.  This  is  making  the  farm-yard  dung  go  farther, 
with  more  powerful  and  more  permanent  effects  ;  and  from 
the  weightier  crops  thus  raised,  the  quantity  of  manure  on  a 
farm  will  be  most  materially  augmented.  Indeed,  upon  land 
in  a  proper  state  for  calcareous  application,  (as  old  ley,)  lime 
is  much  superior  to  dung.  Its  effects  continue  for  a  longer 
period,  while  the  crops  pi'oduced  are  of  a  superior  quality, 
and  less  susceptible  of  injury  from  the  excesses  of  drought 
and  moisture.  The  ground  likewise,  more  especially  if  it 
be  of  a  strong  nature,  is  much  more  easily  wrought;  and,  in 
some  instances,  the  saving  of  labor  alone  would  be  sufficient 
to  induce  a  farmer  to  lime  his  land,  were  no  greater  benefit 
derived  from  the  application  than  the  opportunity  thereby 
gained  of  working  it  in  a  more  perfect  manner. 

7.  Rules  for  the  management  of  Lime.  1.  It  is  necessary 
to  ascertain  the  quality  of  the  soil  to  which  lime  is  proposed 
to  be  applied  ;  and  whether  it  has  formerly  been  limed;  and 
to  what  extent.  In  general,  it  may  be  observed,  that  strong 
loams  and  stubborn  clays  require  a  full  dose  to  bring  them 
into  action,  as  such  soils  are  capable  of  absorbing  a  great 
quantity  of  calcareous  matter.  Lighter  soils,  however,  re- 
quire less  lime  to  stimulate  them  ;  and  may  be  injured  by 
administering  a  quantity  of  lime  recently  calcined,  that  would 
prove  moderately  beneficial  to  those  of  a  heavy  nature.  2. 
As  the  effects  of  lime  greatly  depend  on  its  intimate  admix- 
ture with  the  surface  soils,  it  is  expedient  to  have  it  in  a 
powdered  state  before  it  is  applied,  and  the  drier  and  the 
more  perfectly  powdered  the  better.  3.  Lime  having  a  ten- 
dency to  sink  in  the  soil,  it  cannot  be  ploughed  in  with  too 
shallow  a  furrow,  or  kept  too  near  the  surface.  4.  Lime 
ought  not  to  be  applied  a  second  time  to  weak  or  poor  soils, 
unless  mixed  with  a  compost  ;  after  which  the  land  should 
be  immediately  laid  down  to  grass.  * 

The  following,  on  the  "  Stimulation  of  Soils,"  was  written 


*  Encyclo|TOedia  of  Agriculture. 
16* 


186  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

by  the  Hon.  John  Welles,  of  Boston,  and  published  in  the 
New  England  Farmer. 

"  From  a  frequent  perusal  of  the  benefits  derived  from  lime 
in  its  application  to  soil  in  Europe,  I  have  been  induced  for 
more  than  a  score  of  years,  successively,  to  make  use  of  it 
for  agricultural  purposes,  to  the  extent  of  more  than  one 
hundred  casks  annually. 

"  One  of  my  first  experiments  arose  from  a  desire  to  give 
a  top-dressing  to  a  piece  of  land,  which  it  was  otherwise  in- 
convenient to  do.  The  soil  was  a  heavy  black  loam.  Hav- 
ing a  quantity  of  black  earth  from  a  trench,  (or  top  stratum,) 
I  procured  a  quantity  of  lime.  A  bottom  of  four  or  five  buck 
loads  of  earth  was  first  placed;  then  a  couple  of  casks  of 
lime  were  spread  thereon;  then  earth  and  lime  again,  till 
my  materials  were  used,  or  the  quantity  needed  was  had,  at 
the  rate  of  eight  or  ten  casks  to  the  acre;  thus  a  cask  be- 
ing supposed  to  produce  about  five  bushels  of  slacked  lime, 
the  cost  of  which,  if  the  casks  are  swelled  and  the  lime 
partly  slacked,  is  eight  to  ten  cents  a  bushel.  This  is  the 
most  moderate  application  in  Europe,  and  the  cost  is  about 
the  same. 

"This  mixture,  after  lying  twelve  or  fourteen  days,  was 
shovelled  over,  and  after  some  days  being  found  fine  and 
well  mixed,  was  spread  from  the  cart  on  the  ground.  To 
my  surprise,  I  found  the  effect  produced  to  be  equal  to  what 
is  usual  from  common  compost  manure  ! 

"  In  England,  where  lime  is  most  used  for  agricultural 
purposes,  it  is  considered  that  in  its  crude  state,  or  uncal- 
cined  state,  it  is  most  beneficial,  if  pounded  or  made  fine. 
This,  where  limestone  abounds,  it  is  well  to  know;  but  there 
is  little  of  it  in  this  neighbourhood.  Encouraged  by  this 
experiment,  I  continued  to  purchase  and  apply  considera- 
able  quantities  of  damaged  and  air-slacked  lime  *  in  my  cul- 
tivation, particularly  for  a  low,  flat  piece  of  land.  This  be- 
ing intersected  with  small  ditches,  furnished  the  earth  I 
was  not  able  otherwise  to  procure  to  mix  with  the  lime.  It 
is  not  well,  however,  in  such  cases,  to  lower  the  surface  by 
taking  off  more  than  will  keep  the  ditches  open.  When  the 
earth  is  tough  with  sward,  &c.,  it  may  be  made  finer  by  be- 
ing carted  out  and  put  in  heaps  on  the  ground,  and  spread 
afterwards.     Indeed  this  is  done  to  great   advantage  in  the 


*  Lime  long  exposed  to  the  air,  such   as  sweepings  of  stores,  &c.,  is  of  less 
value  and  more  cheaply  obtained. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  ^  187 

winter;  the  poaching  the  land,  or  making  a  rough  surface 
for  the  scythe,  being  then  well  avoided. 

"  As  this  land  cannot  advantageously  be  ploughed,  I  have, 
in  applying  every  third  year  a  top-dressing,  as  my  custom 
is,  ahernated,  giving  first  a  dressing  of  earth  and  lime,  and 
at  the  expiration  of  three  years,  a  coat  of  compost  manure. 

"  This  has  been  done  on  the  principle  that  a  more  judi- 
cious mixture  would  be  made,  and  a  better  composition  of 
soil  be  had.  I  have  been  guided  herein  from  general  rea- 
soning, not  from  any  proof  that  the  lime  might  not  be  re- 
peated. 

"  It  seems,  however,  to  be  a  prevailing  opinion,  where 
lime  has  been  most  in  use,  that  it  opens  the  sod  and  makes 
it  more  porous,  giving  thereby  a  better  action  to  other  ma- 
nures, which  a  judicious  husbandry  should  in  succession  ap- 
ply. In  this  application  of  lime  to  a  grass  sward,  in  a  deep 
springy  soil,  I  have  been  for  a  long  time  well  satisfied.  It 
was  several  years  before  I  undertook  the  same  practice  on  a 
light  soil,  and  I  did  it  with  less  expectation.  But  I  was 
somewhat  surprised  to  find  it  equally  beneficial. 

"  So  far  lime  has  been  mentioned  as  a  component  article 
in  top-dressing  for  a  green  sward.  Its  effect  will  be  shown 
on  ploughed  land,  and  in  a  grain  crop. 

"  With  a  view  of  increasing  fertility,  I  frequently  have 
applied  on  the  side  of  the  hills  of  Indian  corn  a  small  hand- 
ful of  slacked  lime.  I  so  placed  it,  lest  the  caustic  quality 
of  the  lime  should  prove  injurious  to  the  tender  plant  when 
it  first  started  from  the  soil.  This  is  my  opinion  and  prac- 
tice; though  I  have  often  since  seen  large  pieces  slacken 
and  expand  on  the  soil  without  injury  to  the  grass,  which  in 
a  lively  green  color  pierced  through  it.  This  application  of 
lime  to  the  hill  I  continued  for  some  time,  and  though  small 
in  quantity  or  effect,  I  still  thought  it  of  some  advantage.  I 
was  led,  however,  to  a  more  extensive  and  satisfactory  exper- 
iment. 

"  I  had  a  piece  of  ground  of  about  four  acres,  of  rather 
light  soil,  which  gave  promise  of  a  very  small  crop  of  grass. 
Being  without  the  means  of  obtaining  manure,  as  I  had  a 
quantity  of  earth  of  the  top  stratum,  taken  up  on  building  a 
wall,  I  forthwith  procured  a  quantity  of  lime  and  mixed  it  in 
the  manner  before  mentioned.  About  the  middle  of  June 
I  had  the  grass  mowed  and  the  land  ploughed.  The  lime 
compost  was  then  spread  and  lightly  harrowed  in.  An  early 
sort  of  yellow  corn,  which  when  ripe  husked  itself,  was  pro- 


188  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

cured.  And  my  neighbours,  who  knew  the  process,  were,  in 
the  fall  of  the  year,  much  surprised  by  the  stout  ears  of 
golden  grain  thus  unfolded  to  view  ! 

"  It  has  been  observed,  that  if  lime  is  a  fertilizer  of  soil, 
why  is  it  that  where  it  abounds  and  often  forms  an  under 
stratum  a  greater  fertility  does  not  prevail  ?  To  this  it  may 
be  answered,  that  lime  is  a  constituent  principle,  it  is  believ- 
ed, in  all  soil,  and  may  be  supplied,  where  from  experience  a 
deficiency  is  found.  But  when  it  superabounds,  as  in  most 
other  things,  excess  may  be  injurious.  In  all  this  more  ex- 
perience is  wished  for,  as  the  only  safe  and  profitable 
guide." 

The  following  is  extracted  from  a  letter  from  Daniel  Buck- 
ley, Esq.,  of  Salisbury,  Pennsylvania,  to  J.  Buel,  Esq.  pub- 
lished in  "  Memoirs  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Agriculture," 
Vol.  III.  p.  124. 

"The  land  which  I  cultivate,  according  to  M'Clure's  trea- 
tise, is  transition,  composed  of  white  and  yellow  clay  and 
limestone,  much  of  the  latter  appearing  on  the  surface,  in- 
termixed with  flint.  Upon  this  soil  I  have  made  a  liberal 
use  of  lime,  ever  since  the  year  1790,  and  think  I  have  been 
well  rewarded  for  the  expense  and  labor,  by  the  increased 
value  of  my  crops. 

"  The  method  of  applying  the  lime  which  I  have  adopted 
in  common  with  my  neighbours  is,  in  the  first  place,  to  plough 
up  a  sod  field  with  a  strong  team,  in  the  spring  or  fall;  har- 
row it  the  way  it  is  ploughed,  and  mark  the  field  into  as 
many  squares  as  you  intend  to  put  on  half-bushels,  say  one 
hundred  on  the  acre,  which  will  bring  the  furrows  about 
twenty  feet  apart  each  way,  and  require  fifty  bushels  to  the 
acre.  This  quantity  I  have  found  to  be  most  profitable. 
When  the  lime  is  burnt,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  cool  enough  to 
handle,  it  ought  to  be  hauled  on  the  land  already  marked, 
and  a  half  bushel  deposited  in  the  centre  of  each  square,  in 
as  compact  a  heap  as  possible.  If  water  is  convenient,  I 
prefer  to  slack  the  lime  immediately,  rather  than  to  wait  for 
rain,  as  it  becomes  finer  and  can  be  more  evenly  spread.  As 
soon  as  it  has  slacked,  it  is  immediately  spread  and  well  har- 
rowed. This  method  I  prefer  for  Indian  corn,  barley,  oats, 
rye,  and  potatoes.  On  all  the  above  crops  I  have  experienc- 
ed a  great  benefit  from  lime  the  first  year  after  its  applica- 
tion. With  potatoes  I  add  about  fifteen  two-horse  loads  of 
barn-yard  manure  to  the  acre,  before  planting.  A  second 
liming  is  often  given,  and  much  approved  of,  after  an  interval 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  189 

of  three  or  more  years.  This  amalgamates  better,  and  can 
be  more  intimately  mixed  with  the  soil. 

"  There  are  good  farmers  who  differ  as  to  the  quantity  of 
lime  that  is  most  profitably  applied;  some  say  sixty  bushels 
on  the  acre,  some  seventy,  and  some  more.  I  have  applied 
one  hundred  on  an  acre  of  limestone  land,  at  a  dressing;  but 
have  not  been  able  to  discover  any  benefit  from  using  it 
thus  freely,  nor  any  injury  except  in  the  loss  of  lime. 

"  Wheat  seldom  receives  any  benefit  from  lime  imtil  the 
second  or  third  year  after  it  has  been  applied,  except  it  lias 
been  mixed  in  a  compost  of  yard  manure  and  earth.  This 
method  is  much  practised  in  the  lower  counties  of  this  State; 
though  not  by  good  farmers,  until  they  have  applied  lime  as 
the  basis  of  melioration.  By  this  management  they  have 
raised  their  lands  from  an  impoverished  state,  produced  by 
injudicious  cropping,  to  such  a  state  of  fertility,  as,  I  am  in- 
formed, to  enable  them  to  fatten  a  bullock  of  six  hundred 
weight  on  an  acre,  and  to  cut  grass  from  the  same  acre  suffi- 
cient to  winter  another. 

"  Sandy  soils  are  greatly  improved  by  the  use  of  lime. 
I  lately  purchased  some  of  that  kind,  which  was  originally 
covered  with  chestnut  timber,  and  was  called  mountain  land. 
It  has  been  cleared  seventy  years;  but  lying  a  distance  from 
the  farm  buildings,  had  never  received  any  manure  but  a 
dressing  of  lime.  This  land  I  have  had  repeatedly  farmed 
since  I  owned  it ;  and  although  to  appearance  it  seemed  to 
be  almost  a  caput  mortuum,  with  the  aid  of  ten  or  twelve 
four-horse  loads  of  the  gleanings  of  a  yard  of  a  public  house, 
it  has  produced  as  much,  and  as  good  wheat,  rye,  oats,  timo- 
thy, and  clover  to  the  acre,  as  any  land  in  the  township  in 
which  it  lays.  I  consider  the  liming  which  it  had  fifty  years 
ago  as  the  principal  cause  of  its  fertility. 

"  It  is  a  general  opinion  amongst  good  farmers,  that  liming 
should  be  repeated  every  ten  or  fifteen  years,  and  that  the 
increased  crops  richly  compensate  the  expense.  It  matters 
very  little  how  it  is  applied,  provided  it  is  evenly  spread  im- 
mediately after  it  is  slacked.  If  suffered  to  air-slack,  or  to 
lie  after  it  has  been  water-slacked,  it  re-imbibes  carbonic 
acid,  which  the  fire  had  expelled,  becomes  lumpy,  and  is 
more  difficult  to  be  incorporated  with  the  soil.  Some  spread 
it  upon  the  sod  and  plough  it  under,  and  think  they  have  as 
much  profit  from  it  in  this  way  as  in  any  other.  When  thus 
applied,  it  powerfully  contributes  to  decompose  the  tougher 


190  THE   COMPLETE   FARJiER 

fibres  of  the  sod,  and  to  convert  them  into  nutriment  for  the 
crop." 

Gypsum,  or  Plaster  of  Paris.  It  is  said,  that  the  pro- 
perties of  gypsum  as  a  manure  were  fast  discovered  in  Ger- 
many, by  a  laborer,  at  a  quarry  of  that  substance.  In  passing 
across  a  meadow  to  shorten  the  distance  home,  he  observed 
the  luxuriance  of  the  grass  where  he  had  walked,  and  sup- 
posing it  to  be  caused  by  the  dust  of  the  gypsum  from  his 
feet  and  clothes,  made  experiments,  which  verified  his  sup- 
position. 

Great  differences  exist  among  agriculturists  respecting  the 
uses  of  gypsum  and  the  manner  of  its  operation.  Some 
have  supposed  that  its  efficiency  as  a  manure  is  altogethe- 
owing  to  its  power  of  attracting  moisture  from  the  air.  But 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy  expressed  an  opinion,  that  but  little 
effect  can  be  produced  by  such  attraction.  "  When  com- 
bined with  water,"  he  observed,  "  it  retains  that  fluid  too 
powerfully  to  yield  it  to  the  roots  of  the  plant,  and  its  ad- 
hesive attraction  for  moisture  is  inconsiderable;  the  small 
quantity  in  which  it  is  used  likewise  is  a  circumstance  un- 
favorable to  this  idea."  Some  have  supposed  that  gypsum 
assists  in  the  putrefaction  of  animal  substances,  and  the  de- 
composition of  the  manure  in  the  soil.  This  philosopher, 
however,  proved  by  repeated  experiments,  that  it  rather  re- 
tards than  accelerates  putrefaction.  He  likewise  says,  "  In 
examining  the  ashes  of  sainfoin,  clover,  and  rye  grass,  I 
found  that  they  aflorded  considerable  quantities  of  gypsuin; 
and  this  substance  probably  is  intimately  combined  as  a  ne- 
cessary part  of  the  woody  fibre.  If  this  be  allowed,  it  is 
easy  to  explain  why  it  operates  in  such  small  quantities; 
for  the  whole  of  a  clover  crop,  or  sainfoin  crop,  on  an  acre, 
according  to  my  estimation,  would  afford  by  incineration 
only  three  or  four  bushels  of  gypsum.  The  reason  why 
gypsum  is  not  generally  more  efficacious,  is  probably  be- 
cause that  most  cultivated  soils  contain  it  in  sufficient 
quantities  for  the  use  of  the  grasses.  In  the  common  course 
of  cultivation  gypsum  is  furnished  in  the  manure  ;  for  it  is 
contained  in  stable  dung,  and  in  the  dung  of  cattle  fed  on 
grass.  Lord  Dundas  informs  me,  that  having  tried  gypsum 
without  any  benefit  on  two  of  his  estates  in  Yorkshire,  he  . 
was  induced  to  have  the  soil  examined  for  gypsum,  and  this  -J^" 
substance  was  found  in  both  soils."*  >-. 'lJsk 

^:^^' 

*  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Lecture  VII.  "'^SiK 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  191 

It  has  been  made  a  question,  whether  burning  and  calcin- 
ing gypsum  make  any  difference  with  regard  to  its  fertihzing 
properties.  This  is  said  to  be  the  practice  among  French 
cultivators,  and  was  likewise  recommended  by  Dr.  Deane. 
But  an  English  writer  on  agriculture  observes,  that  "  calcin- 
ing is  not  likely  to  make  any  difference,  because  the  sulphu- 
ric acid  in  gypsum  cannot  be  expelled  by  the  most  violent 
heat  of  the  furnace ;  and  an  experiment  of  Arthur  Young 
countenances  the  assertion,  that  the  effects  of  gypsum  are  the 
same,  whether  calcined  or  rough." 

Dr.  Joseph  E.  Muse,  of  Maryland,  in  an  essay  on  the  sub- 
ject of  gypsum,  and  its  mode  of  operation,  published  in  the 
"American  Farmer,"  (Vol.  I.  p.  338,)  gives  it  as  his  opinion, 
"that  the  chief,  if  not  the  only  cause  of  the  efficacy  of  gyp- 
sum in  promoting  vegetation,  is  to  be  found  in  its  tendency 
to  become  phosphoric,"  and  produced  many  facts  and  deduc- 
tions therefrom,  to  show  that  gypsum  by  exposure  to  the  at- 
mosphere becomes  phosphoric;  andthat  phosphorus  exists  in 
vegetables. 

The  late  Dr.  Gorham,  in  a  paper  read  before  a  Society  in 
Boston,  oiaserved,  "When  plaster  of  Paris  is  applied  to  the 
seed  it  stimulates  the  little  root,  the  action  of  the  vessels  is 
thus  increased,  absorption  goes  on  more  rapidly,  and  it  ac- 
quires more  nourishment  for  a  given  time  than  in  ordinary 
circumstances;  the  consequences  are  a  quick  growth  and 
enlargement  of  the  organs." 

Colonel  Taylor,  of  Virginia,  observed,  in  substance,  that 
he  sows  of  plaster  from  three  pecks  to  one  bushel  to  the 
acre.  Sown  on  clover  in  the  spring,  it  benefits  it  consider- 
ably. The  best  way  of  using  it  is  in  the  spring  upon  the 
long  manure  of  the  preceding  winter,  to  be  ploughed  in  with 
it.  He  thinks  it  a  valuable  ally,  but  by  no  means  a  substi- 
tute for  manure.  That  there  should  be  intervals  of  two, 
three,  or  four  years  between  applying  it  to  the  same  land. 
That  its  effect  is  graduated  by  the  quantity  of  vegetable 
matter  on  which  it  is  sown.  That  on  closely  grazed  land  it 
does  little  good  at  first,  and  repeated  would  become  perni- 
cious; and  that  it  must  be  united  either  with  long  manure 
of  the  winter,  or  the  ungrazed  vegetable  cover  produced  in 
the  summer.  That  all  crops  are  ultimately  improved  by  its 
improving  the  soil,  even  when  its  effects  are  not  immediately 
visible;  but  he  does  not  recommend  it  as  a  top-dressing, 
except  for  clover. 

M.  Canolle,  a  French  writer,  observes,  that   plaster,  act- 


192  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

ing  chiefly  on  the  absorbent  system  of  plants,  its  effects  are 
not  like  those  of  manure  buried  in  the  soil,  which  act  prin- 
cipally on  the  roots.  The  latter,  according  to  their  particu- 
lar nature,  divide,  soften,  enrich,  warm,  or  stiffen  the  sods 
with  which  they  are  mixed.  The  quantity  of  plaster  spread 
upon  the  land  is  so  trifling  that  it  can  have  little  effect  on 
the  soil.  I  speak  from  experience.  Plaster  buried  in  the 
earth  where  sainfoin  has  been  sown,  has  produced  little  al- 
teration; whilst  the  same  quantity  of  plaster  spread  over  the 
same  surface  of  sainfoin  has  produced  the  most  beautiful 
vegetation. 

"  From  this  experience,  so  uniform  in  the  application  of 
plaster,  I  am  led  to  believe,  that  one  must  consult  as  well 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  as  the  kind  of  plants  to  which  we  ap- 
ply plaster.  Thus,  whatever  may  be  the  soil,  on  which  clo- 
ver, lucerne,  and  sainfoin  naturally  flourish  vigorously,  or 
with  that  vigor  which  encourages  us  to  apply  manure,  there 
is  no  risk  in  trying  plaster. 

"  It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  plaster  operates  on  plants  in  a 
direct  ratio  to  the  size  and  number  of  their  leaves.  I  have 
spread  plaster  on  land  where  sainfoin  was  mixed  with  the 
common  grasses  which  compose  our  meadows.  The  growth 
of  the  sainfoin  and  wild  honey-suckle  has  been  beyond  com- 
parison greater  than  that  of  the  common  grasses.  It  is  to 
this  cause  I  attribute  the  failure  of  success  on  grass  ground 
chiefly  filled  with  common  grasses.  I  have  a  field  of  lucerne 
separated  from  a  natural  meadow  only  by  a  brook.  I  have 
greatly  increased  the  lucerne  by  the  plaster,  whilst  the  effect 
of  a  like  quantity  on  the  adjoining  grass  land  was  scarcely, 
if  at  all  perceivable. 

*'  It  has  been  ascertained  by  repeated  experiments,  that  a 
liberal  application  of  plaster  to  clover,  at  the  time  of  turning 
it  down  and  preparing  for  a  wheat  crop,  is  by  far  the  most 
advantageous  to  the  crop,  and  much  preferable  to  turning  in 
the  clover  in  the  usual  way,  and  plastering  on  the  surface. 
The  action  of  the  plaster,  thus  excluded  from  atmospheric 
air,  upon  the  clover,  covered  over,  is  instantaneous,  and  the 
putridity  is  so  certain  as  to  cause  considerable  gas,  which  in 
its  passage  through  the  clod  impregnates  it  with  all  its  ma- 
nuring qualities,  and  the  root  of  the  plant  shoots  down  and 
feeds  on  a  bed  of  manure."* 

A  writer  for  "The  New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  II.    p. 

*  American  Farmer. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  193 

10,)  states,  in  substance,  as  results  of  his  experience,  that 
plaster  was  found  by  him  to  be  useful  as  manure,  after  hav- 
ing been  kept  on  hand  in  a  box  seven  years;  that  its  benefi- 
cial effects  on  pasture  land  are  very  great.  He  sows  it  on 
the  same  piece  of  ground  every  second  year,  and  thinks  five 
or  six  pecks  to  an  acre  are  sufficient;  that  his  pasturing  is 
essentially  improved  by  that  application,  producing  nearly 
double  the  quantity  of  food  which  it  formerly  did;  that  sow- 
ing plaster  on  his  grazing  land  had  a  tendency  to  destroy 
the  bushes,  by  giving  increased  luxuriance  to  the  grass;  that 
this  manure  has  been  found  very  useful  for  flax  and  pota- 
toes, &.C. 

Dr.  Cooper,  editor  of  the  last  Philadelphia  edition  of 
"  Willich's  Domestic  Encyclopedia,"  says,  "  Gypsum  will 
not  answer  beyond  two  and  a  half  bushels  to  the  acre  ;  one 
and  a  half  bushel  is  better.  It  will  not  answer  on  wet  or 
swampy,  or  clayey  soils.  It  should  be  scattered  over  the 
ground  as  a  top-dressing.  Suppose  you  were  asked  if  a 
stone  brought  you  is  gypsum.  1 .  Gypsum  can  be  scratched 
by  the  nail,  scraped  by  a  knife,  ground  by  the  teeth.  2.  It 
will  not  dissolve  in  spirits  of  salt  as  limestone  will;  nor  is 
it  half  so  hard  as  limestone.  3.  Its  color  and  crystalline 
appearance  distinguish  it  from  clay  ;  nor  does  it  give  a  clayey 
odor  when  breathed  upon,  unless  clay  be  mixed  with  it.  4. 
Powder  it,  boil  it  to  dryness,  with  four  times  its  weight  of 
pot  oi;-  pearlash.  Wash  out  all  that  the  hot  water  will  dis- 
solve ;  the  remaining  powder  (if  the  stone  be  gypsum)  is 
carbonate  of  lime." 

Gypsum  has  been  highly  recommended  as  a  manure  for 
potatoes.  The  potatoes,  just  before  planting,  should  be  wet 
and  rolled  in  pulverized  plaster;  and  a  handful  of  plaster 
applied  immediately  after  the  first  and  second  hoeing  to  the 
leaves,  and  scattered  over  the  hill. 

A  writer  for  "The  Genesee  Farmer,"  with  the  signature 
"  Onondago,"  observes,  "Pla.ster  is  always  to  be  sown  on 
wheat  unless  the  land  is  wanted  for  a  spring  crop  the  ne.xt 
year,  after  clover  seed,  at  the  rate  of  one,  two,  or  even 
three  bushels  per  acre.  After  harvest  the  young  clover 
ought  not  to  be  pastured  much,  if  any;  the  next  year  the 
clover  is  suffered  to  grow  as  large  as  it  can  be,  and  be  well 
turned  over,  which  is  then  done,  the  ground  fallowed  and  the 
wheat  sown ;  the  next  year  sow  the  clover  seed  and  plaster, 
and  so  on  from  year  to  year  ad  infinitum,  the  land  always 
getting  better,  as  is  suppospd  l)y  those  who  practise  this 
17     • 


194  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

method.  Plaster  we  think  should  be  sown  in  pasture.  An 
old  farmer,  and  one  who  has  proved  his  skill  by  making  a 
fortune  at  the  business,  and  who  now  tills  nearly  five  hun- 
dred acres,  told  me,  that  a  ton  of  plaster  sown  on  ten  acres 
of  pasture  would  make  it  yield  as  much  as  fifteen  acres  un- 
der the  like  circumstances  without  plaster." 

J.  Spicer,  in  "  Goodsell's  Farmer,"  says,  "  When  I  apply 
plaster  to  corn,  which  I  have  done  for  nearly  three  years 
past,  I  mix  it  with  one-half  leached  ashes,  as  they  are  leached 
for  common  family  use  ;  put  it  in  a  cart,  and  shovel  and  mix 
it  well.  I  then  put  one  gill  to  the  hill  immediately  after  the 
first  hoeing,  and  the  same  thing  over  after  the  second  hoe- 
ing. I  have  tried  the  same  quantity  of  clear  plaster,  side 
and  side,  twice,  and  find  the  mixture  to  produce  the  greatest 
effects." 

The  Hon.  J.  Lowell,  in  an  article  published  in  "The 
New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  V.  p.  1,)  contradicts  an  idea 
which  has  been  generally  prevalent,  that  gypsum  is  of  no 
use  to  lands  near  the  seacoast,  and  observes  as  follows  : 

"  I  shall  set  out  with  the  fact,  that  plaster  has  been  used 
with  success  on  lands  on  the  seacoast  of  France,  where  the 
southwest  wind,  the  prevalent  one  in  summer,  in  that  coun- 
try, brings  with  it  the  ocean  air  :  and  in  our  country,  in 
Massachusetts,  for  example,  the  prevalent  winds  do  not  bring 
with  them  an  atmosphere  filled  with  saline  particles.  It  can- 
not therefore  be  the  vicinity  to  the  sea  which  renders  gypsum 
inert  and  inefficacious  with  us.  The  cause  of  its  inefficacy 
near  the  seacoast,  must  therefore  be  sought  for  in  something 
else  ;  in  the  nature  of  our  soil,  perhaps  already  sufficiently 
imbued  with  the  constituent  parts  of  gypsum,  or  in  our  more 
free  use  of  stable  manure,  which  furnishes  the  plants  with 
all  the  food  they  require. 

"  I  have  been  in  a  constant  and  invariable  course  of  ex- 
periments on  plaster,  and  these  are  the  results.  It  seems  to 
be  of  no  use,  ever,  to  clover,  on  low  meadow  lands  ;  of  no 
use  to  any  plants  on  a  good  rich,  well-manured  soil.  But  I 
have  three  decisive  proofs  of  its  utility  on  dry,  hilly,  gravelly 
soils. 

"  The  first  I  shall  mention,  was  an  experiment  made  by  the 
late  R.  S.  Esq.,  of  Roxbury,  on  a  lofty  hill  of  old  pasture 
land.  He  applied  it  for  several  years,  and  his  own  convic- 
tion was,  and  it  was  also  the  full  conviction  of  many  others, 
that  it  materially  improved  the  condition  of  his  pasture.  It 
was  green  at  an   earlier  period,  and  the  white  clover  came 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  195 

into  it  more  generally  and  luxuriantly  than  into  other  lands 
in  the  same  situation. 

"  Seven  years  since,  I  applied  plaster  to  a  newly  laid  down 
field  of  clover,  one  half  of  which  was  a  dry,  gravelly  knoll, 
with  very  little  vegetable  soil.  When  it  was  lit  for  cutting, 
I  showed  it  to  the  trustees  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultu- 
ral Society,  and  without  pointing  out  to  them  the  part  to 
which  the  plaster  had  been  applied,  they  at  once,  on  sight 
of  it,  detected  and  pointed  out  the  superiority  of  the  crop 
on  the  part  to  which  the  gypsum  had  been  applied  ;  and 
their  designation  agreed,  by  metes  and  bounds,  with  the 
stakes  I  had  driven,  indicating  the  part  to  which  plaster  had 
been  applied,  and  which  were  then  concealed  by  the  grass. 
This  superior  crop  was  on  a  pure  gravelly  soil,  far  inferior 
to  the  rest,  which  was  a  deep  rich  loam. 

"  This  year  I  had  a  piece  of  clover  in  its  second  year  of 
growth.  It  was  similarly  situated.  Two  thirds  of  it  was  a 
gravelly,  thin  soil.  I  cut  the  whole  on  the  10th  day  of  June. 
The  gravelly  part,  owing  to  the  drought,  did  not  yield  more 
than  half  a  ton  to  the  acre  ;  the  rich  part  an  excellent  crop. 
As  soon  as  the  hay  was  in,  I  gave  a  dressing  of  plaster  to 
the  gravelly  knoll  only,  at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  to  the 
acre. 

"The  effect  has  been  as  great  as  has  ever  been  represent- 
ed to  be  produced  by  gypsum  by  persons  in  the  interior. 
The  second  crop  on  the  gravelly  land  is  far  superior  to  that 
on  a  rich  and  deep  soil  in  the  same  field.  It  may  be  discov- 
ered at  ten  rods'  distance  ;  and  you  can  mark  by  your  eyes 
precisely  the  line  of  the  ground  to  which  the  plaster  was 
applied. 

"  Gypsum  is  of  no  service  on  low  lands,  or  on  good  land, 
nor  of  much  use  to  any  products  except  to  clover  and  lu- 
cerne; but  on  sandy  and  gravelly  soils,  and  applied  to  these 
plants,  especially  in  dry  seasons,  I  am  convinced  it  will 
prove  valuable.  I  paid  only  four  dollars  for  ten  bushels, 
ground;  and  I  applied  only  sixty  cents'  worth  to  this  land, 
and  am  convinced,  that  the  plaster  will  increase  the  value  of 
the  second  crop  to  five  times  the  cost  of  the  application." 

A  writer  for  "The  Genesee  Farmer,"  with  the  signature 
"V.  W.  S.,"  recommends  to  sow  plaster  from  the  box  of  a 
wagon,  driven  slowly  over  the  field  in  which  it  is  to  be  dis- 
tributed. He  sowed  five  and  a  half  bushels  of  plaster  over 
four  acres  of  meadow  in  just  an  hour,  and  performed  his 
work  well;  sowed  the  ground  twice  over,  extending  the  cast 


196  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

each  time  to  the  track  the  wheels  last  made,  by  which  the 
driver  guided  his  course  across  the  lot.  The  writer  recom- 
mends a  windy  day  for  his  purpose,  and  believes  a  yoke  of 
cattle  might  be  preferable  to  a  horse.     He  says  : 

"  It  will  be  readily  perceived,  that  while  my  mode  of  sow- 
ing plaster  makes  a  great  saving  of  manual  strength,  the 
great  advantage  derived  from  it  is,  in  the  expedition  with 
which  the  process  is  performed.  One  man  and  boy,  in  a 
one-horse  cart,  can  dress  from  forty  to  sixty  acres  per  day ; 
thus  making  a  very  important  saving  of  time,  at  a  season 
when  the  farmer  is  obliged  to  husband  closely.  The  injury 
of  driving  a  wagon  over  a  field  of  grain  would  be  but  little, 
and  could  not  be  considered  a  moment,  when  compared  with 
the  value  of  the  time  gained.  In  sowing  from  a  wagon  it 
will  be  found  necessary  to  stop  occasionally,  to  pick  up  or 
loosen  the  plaster,  which  becomes  compacted  by  its  motion. 
The  elevated  position  of  the  sower  enables  him  to  make  a 
very  broad  cast,  and  if  advantage  is  taken  of  the  wind,  he 
will  be  able  to  avoid  the  respiration  of  any  great  quantities 
of  dust." 

Marl  consists  of  calcareous  matter,  clay,  and  sand,  or 
some  two  of  these  earths,  (of  which  lime  or  chalk  is  always 
one,)  in  various  proportions.  The  blue  clay  marl  is  free 
from  sand.  Clay  marl  is  also  sometimes  of  a  yellowish 
white,  yellowish  gray,  or  a  brown  or  red  cast.  The  shell 
marl  seldom  contains  clay.  In  schistus  or  stone  marl,  some- 
times sand  and  sometimes  clay  preponderates,  generally  the 
former.  The  sand  marl,  whether  shell  or  schistus,  should 
be  applied  to  clays;  and  clay  marls  to  sands.  In  both  cases 
they  correct  the  defects  of  the  soil,  by  rendering  it,  in 
the  first,  less  adhesive  ;  and,  in  the  latter,  less  open  and 
porous. 

The  earths  are  not  the  food  of  plants.  They  constitute 
the  stomach,  analogous  to  the  stomach  of  animals,  in  which 
vegetable  and  animal  matter  is  received,  digested,  and  with 
the  aid  of  the  leaves  [lungs]  assimilated  to  vegetable  chyle 
and  blood.  The  best  soil  for  this  digestive  process,  is  that 
in  w'hich  the  three  above-named  earths  are  suitably  blended. 
A  sandy  or  gravelly  soil  is  called  hungry,  because  it 
digests  rapidly,  and  dissipates  the  food  committed  to  its  bo- 
som. Hence  green  crops,  or  frequent  manurings,  are  ne- 
cessary to  continue  it  healthy  and  productive.  Such  soils 
are  defective  in  clay  and  calcareous  matter.  Their  texture 
may  therefore  be  improved,  and  their  fertility  increased,  by 


ANU   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  197 

the  application  of  clay  marl ;  or,  what  is  the  same,  by  clay 
and  lime  separately;  though  these  materials  are  found  most 
pure  and  best  blended  in  the  substance  of  marl.  The  quan- 
tity should  be  proportioned  to  the  natural  deficiency  of  these 
materials  in  the  soil.  From  eight  to  one  hundred  loads  per 
acre  have  been  applied  in  one  or  two  dressings;  and  their 
beneficial  effects  have  been  known  to  continue  thirty  years. 
All  the  sand  soils  of  Norfolk,  England,  have  been  marled 
[clayed].  Calcareous, matter,  combined  with  sulphuric  acid 
[oil  of  vitriol],  is  usefully  applied  to  soils  in  the  form  of  gyp- 
sum, or  plaster  of  Paris;  as  is  also  powdered  limestone  and 
chalk,  both  calcareous.  I  am  induced  to  believe  that  neither 
wheat  nor  sainfoin  grass  will  thrive  in  a  soil  destitute  of 
calcareous  matter,  which  is  the  condition  with  most  of  our 
sands. 

A  stiff,  moist  clay,  is  called  cold,  and  is  unfriendly  to  the 
finer  grasses  as  well  as  grains.  Its  texture  is  too  compact 
to  permit  the  roots  to  extend  freely,  and  its  temperature  too 
cold  to  carry  on  the  digestive  process  sufficiently  rapid  for 
the  plants  which  grow  upon  its  surface.  Sand  and  lime,  or 
siliceous  marl,  loosen  its  texture,  render  it  permeable  to 
heat.  Sac,  and  powerfully  assist  to  concoct  the  food  of  vege- 
tables. 

Marl  may  be  known  by  the  most  ordinary  observer.  The 
application  of  a  mineral  acid,  and  even  of  good  vinegar,  will 
cause  an  effervescence.  This  is  the  operation  of  the  acid 
upon  the  lime.  Its  siliceous  and  argillaceous  properties  may 
be  ascertained  by  the  sight  and  feeling,  by  the  aid  of  water, 
or  of  glass.  Sand  subsides  or  settles  quicker  than  clay  in  a 
liquid;   and  will  scratch  glass,  which  clay  will  not. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  in  the  economy  of  nature,  that  the 
indigenous  plants  of  every  country  are  precisely  those  which 
are  best  adapted  to  furnish  the  proper  sustenance  to  its  ani- 
mal population,  and  to  satisfy  its  medicinal  wants.  So  in 
regard  to  our  soils;  every  district  generally  affords  the  means 
of  producing  fertility.  Hence  the  clay  marls  generally  un- 
derlay sands  ;  and  shell  and  sand  marls  most  abound,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  clays.  And  in  addition  to  the  variety  of 
fossil  substances  which  are  calculated  to  increase  fertility, 
every  thing  that  grows  upon  the  earth,  every  particle  of  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  matter,  is  reduced  to  air  and  water  by  the 
chemical  operations  of  nature,  and  in  these  forms  become 
the  food  of  new  plants,  to  nourish  animals.  It  is  a  truth 
calculated  to  teach  humihtv,  that  the  animal,  the  vegetable, 
17* 


198  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

and  the  putrid  mass  of  dung,  are  found  on  chemical  analysis 
to  be  very  nearly  alike,  and  that,  in  the  natural  order  of 
things,  they  constantly  nourish,  feed,  and  produce  each  oth- 
er. "  Nothing  is  nourishment  for  a  vegetable  but  what 
enters  into  the  permanent  composition  of  a  vegetable. 
Nothing  is  nourishment  for  an  animal  but  what  was  original- 
ly a  vegetable."  Man  is  enjoined  to  earn  his  bread  by  the 
sweat  of  his  brow.  He  finds  the  most  noble  incitements  to 
duty  scattered  around  him,  and  he  is  seldom  disappointed 
in  obtaining  the  rewards,  competence,  and  health,  which 
industry  promises  to  her  votaries.  But  I  have  another  re- 
mark to  make  as  to  the  food  of  vegetables.  How  scrupu- 
lously careful  is  the  farmer  of  his  grain,  hay,  and  roots, 
which  are  destined  to  nourish  and  fatten  his  animals  ;  and 
yet  how  thoughtless  and  inattentive  as  to  the  food  of  his 
plants  !  Vegetable  and  animal  substances  are  suffered  to 
waste  in  his  fields  and  yards,  unmindful  of  the  havoc  which 
the  rains,  winds,  and  sand,  are  daily  making  upon  them; 
while  a  moiety  of  his  fertilizing  materials,  the  urine  of  his 
stock,  is  altogether  lost.  He  will  not  suffer  the  flocks  of 
his  neighbours  to  rob  his  own  of  their  food;  yet  he  sees,  with 
but  feeble  efforts  to  prevent  it,  his  plants  plundered  by 
pestiferous  weeds  of  the  food  which  is  essential  to  their 
health  and  vigor. 

"  To  find  the  composition  of  a  marl,  pour  a  few  ounces  of 
diluted  muriatic  acid  into  a  Florence  flask;  place  them  in  a 
scale,  and  let  them  be  balanced:  then  reduce  a  few  ounces 
of  dry  marl  into  powder;  and  let  this  powder  be  carefully 
and  gradually  thrown  into  the  flask,  until,  after  repeated  ad- 
ditions, no  farther  effervescence  is  perceived.  Let  the  re- 
mainder of  the  powdered  marl  be  weighed,  by  which  the 
quantity  projected  will  be  known.  Let  the  balance  be  then 
restored.  The  difference  of  weight  between  the  quantity 
projected  and  that  requisite  to  restore  the  balance,  will  show 
the  weight  of  air  lost  during  effervescence.  [That  air  pro- 
ceeds from  the  calcareous  earth  alone,  which  contains  forty- 
four  per  cent,  of  this  carbonic  acid  air.  Suppose  five 
hundred  grains  of  marl  lose  forty-four  grains  by  the  escape 
of  air,  then  that  marl  contained  one  hundred  grains,  or  one- 
fifth  of  its  whole  weight,  of  limestone.  — T.  C]  If  the  loss 
amount  to  twenty  or  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  quantity  of 
marl  projected,  the  marl  assayed  is  calcareous  marl,  or  marl 
rich  in  calcareous  earth.  Clayey  marls,  or  those  in  which 
the  argillaceous  ingredient  prevails,  lose  only  eight  or  ten 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  199 

per  cent,  of  their  weight  by  this  treatment,  and  sandy  marls 
about  the  same  proportion.  The  presence  of  much  argilla- 
ceous earth  may  be  judged  by  drying  the  marl,  after  being 
washed  with  spirit  of  salt,  when  it  will  harden  and  form  a 
brick. 

"To  determine  with  still  greater  precision  the  quantity  of 
calcareous  earth  in  marl,  let  the  solution  in  muriatic  acid  be 
filtered  and  mixed  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash, 
till  no  farther  precipitation  appear.  Let  the  sediment  sub- 
side; wash  it  well  with  water;  lay  it  on  a  filter,  previously 
■weighed,  and  dry  it.  The  weight  of  the  dry  mass  will  show 
how  much  carbonate  of  lime  the  quantity  of  marl  submitted 
to  experiment  contained.      See  Kirwan  on  Manures. 

"  The  quantity  necessary  to  be  used,  varies  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil;  but  the  utmost  caution  is  requisite, 
because  if  too  large  a  portion  be  scattered  on  the  land,  it 
cannot  be  easily  removed,  and  if  too  little  be  employed,  the 
deficiency  may  be  readily  supplied.  On  sandy,  gravelly,  or 
light  soils,  it  will  be  advisable  to  spread  as  much  as  will 
form  a  thick  coat,  in  order  to  bind  and  stiffen  the  ground. 
But,  of  whatever  nature  the  land  may  be,  the  most  judicious 
cultivators  recommend  such  a  portion  to  be  laid  on  it,  as  will 
form  a  thin  coat  over  the  whole  surface. 

"  The  proper  season  for  snarling  is  the  summer;  as  this 
kind  of  manure  is  then  perfectly  dry,  and  not  only  lighter, 
but  also  more  easily  reduced  to  a  powder.  Marl,  however, 
may  be  advantageously  spread  during  the  winter  frosts;  as 
in  the  latter  season,  there  are  few  opportunities  of  perform- 
ing other  labors  of  the  field. 

"  Previously  to  marling,  the  land  ought  to  be  diligently 
cleared  from  all  weeds,  and  rendered  level,  both  with  the 
brake  and  the  common  harrow,  so  that  the  marl  may  be 
equally  spread  on  the  surface,  where  it  should  be  suffered  to 
lie  during  the  winter.  In  the  month  of  February,  [March, 
or  April,]  and  in  dry  weather,  it  will  be  proper  to  draw  a 
bush-harrow,  well  weighted,  over  the  land,  that  the  marl 
may  be  uniformly  distributed  ;  but,  as  this  manure  is  very 
ponderous,  and  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  if  injudi- 
ciously ploughed  in,  it  has  been  suggested  to  turn  it  into  an 
ebb-furrow  for  the  first  crop  :  during  the  growth  of  the  latter, 
the  marl  will  incorporate  with  and  become  a  part  of  the 
soil,  from  which  it  does  not  readily  separate.  So  permanent, 
indeed,  are  its  fertilizing  properties,  that  if  land  be  properly 
marled,  it  will  continue  arable  for  the  space  of  twelve  or 


200  THE    COMPLETE   FARMER 

fourteen  years  ;   and,   for   pasture,   during  a   much    longer 
period. 

"A  good  aHificial  marl  may  be  prepared  by  mixing  equal 
quantities  of  pure  clay  and  lime,  in  alternate  layers,  so  as  to 
form  a  heap,  which  should  be  exposed  to  the  winter  frost : 
this  compound  is  well  calculated  for  light  lands  ;  but  if  the 
soil  be  strong  and  heavy,  it  will  be  necessary  to  substitute 
loam  and  sand  for  the  clay.  Such  compositions  may  be 
usefully  employed  where  marl  is  not  easily  procured  ;  as 
they  will  amply  repay  the  labor  bestowed  on  mixing  them, 
being  little  interior  to  the  genuine  calcareous  earth."  — 
Domestic  Encyclopedia. 

An  English  writer  on  agriculture  observes,  that  "  whoever 
finds  marl  finds  a  mine  of  great  value.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
and  most  general  manures  in  nature;  proper  for  all  soils, 
and  particularly  so  for  clay."  It  is  usually  found  under 
moss  or  peat,  in  low  sunken  lands,  and  especially  nigh  the 
sea  or  large  rivers.  It  has  been  sometimes  discovered  by 
ant-hills,  as  those  insects  bring  up  small  pieces  of  shells  from 
their  holes. 

Peat  is  a  well-known  substance,  used  both  for  manure  and 
for  fuel.  In  its  natural  state  peat  is  of  but  little  or  no  ser- 
vice as  manure,  but  by  exposing  it  to  the  effects  of  fermenta- 
tion it  becomes  very  useful  as  food  for  plants.  In  its  unfer- 
mented  state  it  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  tannin, 
which  is  a  powerful  astringent,  resisting  all  approaches  to 
putrefaction  ;  and  is  impregnated  with  acids  injurious  to 
vegetation,  which  can  be  expelled  by  fermentation  with  barn- 
yard manure,  and  other  suitable  substances. 

The  following  method  of  preparing  peat  for  manure  is 
extracted  from  a  small  treatise  by  lord  Meadowbanks,  which 
was  printed  and  distributed  gratis  among  the  Scottish  pea- 
santry, and- has  been  highly  approved  of  both  by  practical 
and  scientific  cultivators. 

"  Let  the  peat-moss,  of  which  compost  is  to  be  formed, 
be  thrown  out  of  the  pit  for  some  weeks  or  months,  in  order 
to  lose  its  redundant  moisture.  By  this  means  it  is  rendered 
the  lighter  to  carry,  and  less  compact  and  weighty,  when 
made  up  with  fresh  dung  for  fermentation;  and  accordingly, 
less  dung  is  required  for  the  purpose,  than  if  the  preparation 
is  made  with  peat  taken  recently  from  the  pit.  The  peat 
taken  from  near  the  surface,  or  at  a  considerable  depth,  an- 
swers equally  well.     And  the   more   compact  the  peat,  and 


AXD   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  201 

the  fitter  to  prove  good  fuel,  so  much  the  more  promising  it 
is  to  be  prepared  for  manure. 

"  Take  the  peat-moss  to  a  dry  spot,  convenient  for  con- 
structing a  dunghill,  to  serve  the  field  to  be  manured.  Lay 
the  cart-loads  of  it  in  two  rows,  and  of  the  dung  in  a  row 
betwixt  them.  The  dung  thus  lies  on  the  area  of  the  com- 
post dunghill,  and  the  rows  of  peat  should  be  near  enough 
each  other,  that  workmen  in  making  up  the  compost  may  be 
able  to  throw  them  together  by  the  spade.  In  making  up, 
let  the  workmen  begin  at  one  end;  and  at  the  extremity  of 
the  row  of  dung,  (which  should  not  extend  quite  so  far  at 
that  end  as  the  rows  of  peat  on  each  side  of  it  do,)  let  them 
lay  a  bottom  of  peat,  six  inches  deep,  and  fifteen  feet  wide. 
Then  throw  forward,  and  lay  about  ten  inches  of  dung  above 
the  bottom  of  peat;  then  four  or  five  of  dung  ;  and  then 
cover  it  over  with  peat  at  the  end  where  it  was  begun,  at 
the  two  sides,  and  above.  The  compost  should  not  be 
raised  above  four  feet  and  a  half  high,  otherwise  it  is  apt  to 
press  too  heavily  on  the  under  parts,  and  check  the  fermen- 
tation: unless  the  peat,  when  dry,  be  very  puffy  and  light, 
and  then  a  much  greater  height  is  desirable.  Neither  should 
it  be  much  lower,  otherwise  it  will  prove  wanting  in  the 
compactness,  and  soon  also,  if  the  weather  is  very  dry,  in 
the  moisture  required  for  the  ingredients  of  which  it  con- 
sists, to  act  chemically  on  each  other.  When  a  beginning 
is  thus  made,  the  workmen  will  proceed  working  backwards, 
and  adding  to  the  column  of  compost  as  they  are  furnished 
with  the  three  roAvs  of  materials  directed  to  be  laid  down 
for  them.  They  must  take  care  not  to  tread  on  the  compost, 
or  render  it  too  compact;  and  of  consequence,  in  propor- 
tion as  the  peat  is  wet,  it  should  be  made  up  in  lumps,  and 
not  much  mashed  or  broken. 

"  In  mild  weather,  seven  cart-loads  of  common  farm-yard 
dung,  tolerably  fresh  made,  is  sufficient  for  twenty-one  cart- 
loads of  peat-moss;  but  in  cold  weather,  a  larger  proportion 
of  dung  is  desirable;  at  least,  it  is  prudent  to  omit  putting 
any  peat  between  the  two  upper  layers  of  dung,  and  rather 
thicken  the  outer  coating  with  peat.  It  is  also  proper  in 
winter,  if  ground  with  a  dry  bottom  can  be  conveniently  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose,  to  increase  greatly  the  breadth  of  the 
dunghill,  which,  in  that  case,  maybe  done  without  any  limit, 
by  adding,  all  round  the  dunghill,  circles,  consisting  of  layers 
of  dung  and  peat,  of  seven  feet  in  breadth.  And  if  the  mass 
of  the  dunghill  is  thus  enlarged,  there   is  little  occasion  to 


202  THE   COMPLETE   FARMEH 

exceed  the  proportion  of  dung  recommended  for  making  up 
to  prepare  in  the  milder  season  ;  especially  if  a  covering  of 
coarse  vegetables  of  any  sort,  such  as  waste  hay  or  straw, 
rushes,  broom,  or  furze,  or  brushwood  of  evergreens,  is 
thrown  over  the  dunghill.  In  fact,  a  covering  of  this  sort  is 
scarce  less  useful  in  summer  to  prevent  the  escape  of  mois- 
ture, than  in  winter  to  exclude  cold. 

"To  every  twenty-eight  cart-loads  of  the  compost,  when 
made  up,  it  is  of  use  to  throw  on  above  it  a  cart-load  of 
ashes,  either  made  from  coal,  peat,  or  wood;  or  if  these  can- 
not be  had,  half  the  quantity  of  slacked  lime  may  be  used, 
the  more  finely  powdered  the  better.  But  these  additions 
are  in  nowise  essential  to  the  general  success  of  the  com- 
post, provided  a  sufficiency  of  time  is  allowed  to  the  prepa- 
ration to  compensate  for  the  want  of  them. 

"  The  dung  to  be  used  should  either  have  been  recently 
made,  or  kept  fresh  by  compression;  as  by  the  treading  of 
cattle  or  swine,  or  by  carts  passing  over  it.  And  if  there  is 
little  or  no  litter  in  it,  a  smaller  quantity  will  serve,  pro- 
vided any  spongy  vegetable  matter  is  added  at  making  up  the 
compost,  as  fresh  weeds,  the  rubbish  ofa  stack-yard,  potato- 
shaws,  sawings  of  timber,  &c.  And  as  some  sorts  of 
dung,  even  when  fresh,  are  much  more  advanced  in  decora- 
position  than  others,  it  is  material  to  attend  to  this;  for  a 
much  less  proportion  of  such  dung,  especially  if  abounding 
in  animal  matter,  as  is  less  advanced,  will  serve  for  the  com- 
post, provided  care  is  taken  to  keep  the  mass  sufficiently 
open,  either  by  a  mixture  of  the  above-mentioned  substances, 
or,  if  these  are  wanting,  by  adding  the  peat  piecemeal,  that 
is,  first  mixing  it  up  in  the  usual  proportion  of  three  to  one 
of  dung,  and  then,  after  a  time,  adding  an  equal  quantity, 
more  or  less,  of  peat.  The  dung  of  this  character  of  great- 
est quantity  is  shamble-dung,  with  which,  under  the  above 
precautions,  six  times  the  quantity  of  peat,  or  more,  may  be 
prepared.  The  same  holds  as  to  pigeon-dung  and  other 
fowl-dung;  and  to  a  certain  extent,  also,  as  to  that  which  is 
collected  from  towns,  and  made  by  animals  that  feed  on 
grains,  refuse  of  distilleries,  &c. 

"  The  compost,  after  it  is  made  up,  gets  into  a  general 
heat,  sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  weather  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  dung;  in  summer,  in  ten  days  or  sooner  ;  in 
winter,  not  perhaps  for  many  weeks,  if  the  cold  is  severe. 
It  always,  however,  has  been  found  to  come  on  at  last;  and 
in  summer,  it  sometimes  rises  so  high  as  to  be  mischievous, 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  203 

by  consuming  the  materials,  (fire-fanging.)  In  that  season 
a  stick  should  be  kept  in  it  in  different  parts,  to  pull  out  and 
feel  now  and  then  ;  for  if  it  approaches  to  blood-heat,  it 
should  either  be  watered  or  turned  over  ;  and  on  such  an 
occasion,  advantage  may  be  taken  to  mix  with  it  a  little 
fresh  peat.  The  heat  subsides,  after  a  time,  and  with  great 
variety,  according  to  the  weather,  the  dung,  and  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  making  up  of  the  compost;  which  then  may  be 
allowed  to  remain  untouched,  until  within  three  or  four 
weeks  of  using,  when  it  should  be  turned  over,  upside  down, 
and  outside  in,  and  all  lumps  broken:  then  it  comes  into  a 
second  heat,  but  soon  cools,  and  is  fit  to  be  taken  out  for 
use.  In  this  state  the  whole,  except  bits  of  the  old  decayed 
wood,  appears  a  black  free  mass,  and  spreads  like  garden- 
mould.  Use  it,  weight  for  weight,  as  farm-yard  dung;  and 
it  will  be  found,  in  a  course  of  cropping,  fully  to  stand  the 
comparison." 

Many  other  articles  are  useful  for  manure,  such  as  blood, 
offals  of  animals,  hair,  refuse  feathers,  woollen  rags,  hoofs 
and  horns  of  cattle,  sheep,  Stc.  ;  bones  of  all  kinds,  pound- 
ed, broken,  or  ground,  at  the  rate  of  sixty  bushels  to  the 
acre;  raw  skins;  fish  of  all  kinds;  swamp  mud,  river  mud, 
pond  mud  and  sea  mud,  wood  ashes,  turfs,  sea-weeds,  moss 
mixed  with  dung  in  holes,  —  good  for  potatoes,  —  turf  from 
highways,  &c. ;  shells  of  shell-fish;  scrapings  of  streets  and 
back  yards  ;  rubbish  of  old  houses,  and  earth  which  has 
long  been  under  cover.  Both  of  these  collect  and  retain 
nitre.  Old  brine  of  salted  meat  or  fish,  which  contains,  be- 
sides salt,  some  blood,  oil,  &c.,  in  composts.  Sea  water, 
which  contains  other  substances  besides  water  and  salt, 
which  are  fit  for  nourishing  plants.  Soap-suds,  replete  with 
a  prepared  food  for  plants;  excellent  for  watering  gardens 
in  dry  weather.  None  of  this  should  ever  be  lost.  If  the 
garden  be  distant  or  wet,  it  may  enrich  the  dung  heap. 
Water  in  the  hollows  of  farm-yards.  Instead  of  suffering 
this  liquor  to  soak  into  the  earth,  it  should  be  taken  up  by 
straw  litter,  or  some  absorbent  substance  thrown  into  it,  or 
carried  out  in  a  water-cart,  and  sprinkled  over  land  which 
needs  it,  in  the  manner  in  which  streets  are  watered  in 
cities. 

In  the  "  New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  IX.  p.  245,)  was 
published  an  article  written  by  Hon.  John  Lowell,  from 
which  the  following  is  extractecl: 

"  A  few  years  since,  the  Hon   William  Ellis,  of  Dedham, 


204  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

recommended  to  me  the  use  of  the  head  and  feet  bones  of 
oxen,  as  a  highly  valuable  manure  on  meadow  lands.  He 
said  he  had  observed,  in  passing,  that  I  had  grounds  re- 
markably well  adapted  for  this  manure.  I,  however,  neglect- 
ed this  hint,  though  I  constantly  kept  it  in  mind,  until  the 
last  year,  when,  seeing  an  immense  load  of  the  heads  of 
oxen  passing  by,  I  inquired  of  the  owner  for  what  purpose 
he  was  carting  these  materials,  and  he  answered  me  to  the 
following  facts,  viz.  :  that  he  came  down  a  distance  of  eight 
miles  with  an  empty  team,  and  was  carrying  back  a  load, 
which  cost  him  two  dollars,  to  put  on  his  meadow  land.  I 
found  it  was  no  new  experiment  with  him,  and  that  he  came 
often  for  that  purpose. 

"  I  made  the  experiment.  Its  success  surpassed  all  his 
descriptions.  The  manure  brought  in  new  grasses.  It  en- 
couraged and  invigorated  the  old. 

"  I  am  aware  it  is  only  of  limited  application,  but  it  is  no 
trifling  thing  to  render  useful  an  article  formerly  thrown 
away.  We  know  so  little  of  the  philosophy  of  manure,  that 
I  shall  not  speak  positively  on  the  subject.  All  I  shall  say 
is,  that  there  is  much  animal  matter  still  adhering  to  the 
bones,  and  animal  matter  has  been  found  by  experience  to 
promote  the  growth  of  vegetables. 

"The  mode  of  application  is,  to  break  them  up  with  a 
sledge,  or  with  the  back  of  an  axe,  and  then  to  press  them 
below  the  surface  by  a  rammer  or  beetle.  The  only  point 
to  which  I  offer  my  testimony  is,  that  Ihe  effects  are  much 
greater  than  an  equal  quantity  of  horse  and  cow  dung.  This 
may  be  relied  on." 


FENCES.  The  kinds  of  fence  and  manner  of  fencing, 
should  vary,  according  to  the  difference  of  soils  and  the 
kinds  of  materials  for  fencing.  In  new  lands  logs  are  and 
ought  to  be  most  used.  When  built  of  white  pine,  they  will 
last  about  twenty  years.  Other  sorts  of  wood,  such  as  pitch- 
pine,  hemlock,  ash,  oak,  &c.,  will  endure  for  a  considerable 
time  if  not  placed  too  near  the  ground.  If  a  fence  be  made 
partly  of  white  pine  and  partly  of  other  wood,  the  former 
should  be  laid  nearest  to  the  ground.  If  logs  are  peeled 
they  will  last  the  longer  in  fences. 

It  has  been  practised  by  some  farmei-s  to  make  posts  for 
fences  very  durable  by  the  following  simple  process.     They 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  205 

bore  a  hole  in  that  part  of  the  post  which,  when  set,  will  be 
just  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  with  such  a  slope  as  will 
carry  it  downward  an  inch  or  two.  They  then  fill  the  hole 
with  salt,  which  will  preserve  the  timber  a  long  time  from 
decay. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  posts  and  rails  will  be  found 
the  cheapest  materials  for  fence.  In  making  fences  of  this 
description,  it  is  advised  by  Mr.  Preston,  of  Stockport,  Penn- 
sylvania, to  set  the  posts  with  the  top  parts  in  the  ground; 
and  he  asserts  that  they  will,  in  that  position,  last  three  or 
four  times  as  long  as  when  they  are  set  with  the  butt  ends 
down.  He  advises,  also,  in  making  fences,  always  to  place 
the  rails  with  the  heart  side  up. 

The  best  timber  for  rails,  according  to  Dr.  Deane,  is  red 
cedar.  It  is  easy  to  split,  light  to  carry  and  handle,  suffi- 
ciently strong,  and  the  most  durable  of  any.  In  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  England,  there  is  an  ac- 
count which  states,  in  substance,  that  posts  of  oak,  and  oth- 
ers of  chestnut,  were  set  down  in  Somersetshire,  where  they 
had  to  undergo  repairs  in  eighteen  years.  The  oak  posts 
were  then  found  to  be  unserviceable,  and  the  chestnut  very 
little  worn.  The  oak  posts  were  renewed,  the  chesnut  re- 
mained, and  in  twenty-five  years  afterwards  they  were  not 
so  much  rotted  as  the  oak. 

If  the  lower  ends  of  posts  are  scorched  in  a  hot  flame  be- 
fore they  are  put  into  the  ground,  they  will  last  the  longer. 
Some  recommend  soaking  them  in  sea-water  to  keep  them 
from  rotting.  The  posts  should  be  set  at  least  two  feet  in 
the  ground.  Some  farmers  cut  their  posts  so  long,  and  mor- 
tise them  in  such  a  manner,  that  they  can  turn  them  upside 
down,  when  the  lower  ends  become  rotten. 

It  is  said  in  the  Barnstable  Journal,  that  "  Deacon  Wins- 
low  Martin  has  on  his  farm  a  kind  of  fence,  which  for  dura- 
bility and  beauty  can  hardly  be  exceeded.  On  each  side  of 
the  road  adjacent  his  dwelling,  are  rows  of  large  button- 
wood  trees,  set  ten  or  twelve  feet  asunder.  Into  these,  when 
young,  cedar  rails  were  inserted,  as  into  common  posts.  As 
the  trees  increased  in  size,  the  wood  formed  closely  around 
the  ends  of  the  rails,  and  firmly  secured  them  in  their 
places.  It  is  certainly  a  durable  and  cheap  fence,  because 
it  will  require  no  repairs  at  least  for  one  generation,  and  is 
moreover  constantly  increasing  in  value.  Were  our  roads 
lined  with  this  kind  of  fence,  it  would  add  not  a  little  to  the 
beauty  of  the  country  and  the  comfort  of  the  traveller." 
18 


206  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

The  "Farmer's  Guide"  observes,  that  "post  and  rail  fences 
and  board  fences  are  very  good  where  the  soil  is  dry.  In  a 
wet  soil,  the  posts  will  be  moved  by  frost.  Red  cedar,  locust, 
and  chestnut,  are  best.  Butternut,  black  walnut,  and  oak, 
are  pretty  good,  lasting  about  fifteen  years.  For  the  rails, 
cedar  is  best,  lasting  perhaps  an  age.  If  timber  is  scarce, 
and  the  ground  is  level  and  free  from  stones,  post  and  rail 
fences,  set  in  a  bank  of  the  earth  of  two  small  ditches, 
thrown  up  together,  ought  to  be  preferred.  If  the  posts  are 
too  small  to  have  holes  made  through  them,  the  rails  may  be 
flattened  at  the  ends,  and  fastened  to  the  posts  with  spikes, 
or  with  wooden  pins  well  secured." 

When  ground  is  wholly  subdued,  and  the  stumps  of  its 
original  trees  quite  rotted  out,  stone  walls,  properly  made, 
are  the  best  and  cheapest  fences.  On  hard,  sandy,  or  gravel- 
ly soil,  a  wall  will  stand  many  years  without  repairing.  On 
a  clay  or  miry  soil,  the  foundation  should  be  laid  in  a  trench, 
nearly  as  low  as  the  earth  freezes.  But  a  wall  of  flat  or 
square  shaped  stones  will  stand  pretty  well  on  any  soil  on 
the  surface. 

A  writer  for  the  "  Genesee  Farmer  "  gives  the  following 
directions  for  "  Planting  Posts  for  Garden  Fences,  &c." 

"  Instead  of  filling  the  holes  up  with  the  earth  taken  out 
in  digging  them,  I  would  recommend  filling  in  around  the 
posts  leached  ashes  instead  of  common  earth,  and  topping 
off"  with  five  or  six  inches  of  unleached  ashes  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground;  for  it  is  generally  between  tvind  and 
water,  as  the  sailors  term  it,  that  garden  posts  begin  to  de- 
cay. My  reason  for  recommending  ashes  is,  that  I  have  fre- 
quently found  pieces  of  board,  hoops,  and  staves,  buried 
under  heaps  of  leached  ashes,  which  had  lain  there  many 
years,  and  were  quite  as  sound  as  when  first  buried.  No 
doubt  many  of  your  readers  have  noticed  the  same,  in  re- 
moving old  ash-heaps  near  potash  works." 


HEDGES.  In  some  soils,  situations,  and  circumstances, 
hedge  fences  will  be  found  most  advisable  and  economical. 
The  following  remarks  on  this  subject,  by  the  Hon.  John 
Lowell,  were  published  in  the  "  New  England  Farmer," 
Vol.  X.  p.  339. 

"It  is  not  my  intention  to  recommend  live  hedges  for  this 
rocky  part  of  the  'United  States.     Our   own  stones  furnish 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  207 

the  best  divisions  we  could  ask  for  or  desire ;  and  on  most 
farms  the  removal  of  them  from  the  soil  would  be  economi- 
cal, and  the  placing  them  as  partitions  for  fields  is  the  cheap- 
est and  most  natural  mode  of  disposing  of  them.  Still,  in 
New  England,  there  are  extensive  tracts  of  country  of  allu- 
vial or  diluvial  soil,  in  which  no  rocks  are  found,  and  in 
which  a  stone  wall  could  not  be  obtained  without  great  ex- 
pense. Such  is  the  state  of  the  greater  part  of  the  old  col- 
ony below  Plymouth,  and  of  some  parts  of  the  county  of 
Middlesex.  But  wherever  wood  fences  are  required  it  may 
be  useful  to  substitute  live  hedges. 

"  The  Virginia  thorn,  is  in  most  cases  utterly  useless  as  a 
fence.  This  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  ravages  of  a  worm  at 
its  root;  whether  it  be  the  same  which  attacks  the  apple  and 
the  quince,  is  a  point  not  settled.  The  same  objection  is 
applicable  to  the  English  hawthorn.  And  to  this  fatal  one  is 
superadded  another,  the  appearance  of  a  fungus  of  a  yellow 
color  on  the  leaves,  which  utterly  disfigures  them  and  strips 
them  of  their  foliage  in  September.  The  gleditsrhia  triacan- 
thos  is  not  suited  for  hedges  with  us.  If  left  to  grow  they 
soon  grow  out  of  all  reach,  if  checked  they  are  winter-killed. 
We  are  indebted  wholly  and  entirely  to  the  experiments  of 
Ezekiel  Hersy  Derby,  Esq.  for  the  possession  of  a  plant, 
the  buckthorn,  {rhamnus  catharticus,)  which,  from  ten  years' 
trial,  seems  to  afford  every  desirable  quality  for  a  healthy, 
beautiful,  and  effectual  hedge. 

"I  have  tried  this  plant  for  six  years.  It  is  hardy  and 
rapid  in  its  growth,  of  impenetrable  thickness,  and  so  far  as 
that  extent  of  experiment  enables  me  to  judge,  not  subject 
to  any  disease,  or  the  visitation  of  any  insect  whatever. 
As  it  is  very  provoking  as  well  as  expensive  to  cultivators  to 
be  led  astray,  and  to  find  after  five  or  ten  years  that  they 
have  been  deceived,  they  would  do  well  to  examine  growing 
hedges  of  the  buckthorn." 

The  following  is  extracted  from  a  notice  of  Mr.  Derby  of 
the  cultivation  and  uses  of  the  buckthorn.  The  tree  from 
which  my  plants  were  raised,  formerly  stood  in  the  garden  of 
the  venerable  Dr.  Holyoke,  who  used  the  berries  for  medici- 
nal purposes,  and  was  as  large  as  any  of  our  common  apple- 
trees.  He  was  induced  at  last  to  cut  it  down,  as  it  shaded 
so  much  of  his  garden.  I  was  so  pleased  with  the  healthy 
and  clean  appearance  of  the  tree,  and  the  next  spring  ob- 
serving several  young  plants,  raised  from  seed  dropped  in 


208  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

the  autumn,  that  I  was  induced  to  transplant  them  to  a  nur- 
sery, where  they  grew  with  great  rapidity. 

"  After  trying  several  kinds  of  trees  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a  hedge,  without  much  success,  I  was  induced  to  try 
this,  which  has  afforded  a  most  beautiful  fence,  so  much  so 
as  to  attract  the  attention  of  every  person  who  has  seen  it. 
It  divides  my  garden,  is  about  three  hundred  feet  in  length, 
the  plants  set  nearly  a  foot  apart,  is  five  feet  high,  and  two 
feet  wide  at  top,  which  is  cut  nearly  level.  It  shoots  early 
in  the  spring,  makes  a  handsome  appearance,  and  continues 
its  verdure  till  very  late  in  the  fall.  It  has  not  so  much 
spine  as  either  the  English  or  American  hawthorn,  but  I 
think  sufficient  to  protect  it  from  cattle.  The  plant  bears 
the  knife  or  shears  remarkably,  and  makes  as  close  and  tight 
a  fence  as  either  of  the  others,  and  is  not  subject  to  blight, 
as  both  of  them  have  been  with  me.  The  tree  furnishes  a 
large  quantity  of  seed,  which  rapidly  vegetates  ;  and  I 
make  no  doubt  it  can  be  propagated  by  cuttings." 

We  are  apprehensive  that  no  species  of  thorn  can  be  cul- 
tivated to  advantage  in  New  England  for  the  purpose  of 
making  hedges,  on  account  principally  of  the  insects  which 
in  this  part  of  the  country  infest  that  plant.  Some,  however, 
prefer  the  American  thorn,  {crcdcegus  cordata.)  A  valuable 
communication  relative  to  the  use  of  this  and  other  plants 
for  live  fences,  by  B.  S.,  M.  D.,  may  be  found  in  the  "  New 
England  Farmer,"  Vol.  IX.  p.  209. 

Upon  consulting  Mr.  Lowell,  as  to  any  changes  it  would 
be  proper  to  make  on  the  article  of  hedges,  he  states,  that 
he  still  gives  the  preference  to  the  buckthorn,  but  that  the 
Newcastle  thorn,  grown  by  John  Prince,  Esq.,  is  more 
beautiful,  and  it  bids  fair  to  be  as  enduring  and  as  free  from 
disease.  The  rapidity  of  growth  of  the  buckthorn  is,  in  his 
judgment,  a  full  equivalent  for  the  beauty  of  the  other. 


SHEEP,  There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  sheep,  with 
differences  more  or  less  marked.  To  give  even  an  abridged 
account  of  all  the  kinds  described  in  foreign  publications, 
would  require  a  large  volume.  In  England,  the  principal 
division  of  sheep  is  into  the  long  wool  and  the  short  wool 
kinds.  Among  those  bearing  long  wool,  are  the  Leicester, 
Devonshire  JVots,  Exmoor,   Heath,  the  Bakeivell  or  Dishley 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  209 

breeds,  &c.  &c.     The  origin  of  the  last-mentioned  breed  of 
sheep  is  thus  described  by  an  EngHsh  writer: 

"  Mr.  Bakewell  selected  from  his  own  flock,  and  from  the 
flocks  of  others,  those  sheep  to  breed  from,  which  possessed 
in  the  greatest  degree  that  perfection  of  form  he  was  de- 
sirous to  retain  and  perpetuate.  By  judiciously  crossing 
them,  and  selecting  the  most  perfect  of  their  progeny,  he  at 
length  succeeded  in  forming  the  breed,  which  has  been  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  the  New  Leicester,  or  Disliley 
breed;  and  having  attained  his  object,  he  carefully  guarded 
against  any  future  intermixtures,  with  other  breeds.  This 
breed  exceeds  all  others  in  its  propensity  to  fatten  ;  and 
by  crossing  by  rams  with  this  breed,  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  long-wooled  sheep  in  England  have  been  greatly 
improved  in  this  respect. 

"The  Dishley  breed  are  distinguished  from  other  long- 
wooled  breeds  by  their  fine  lively  eyes,  clean  heads,  straight, 
broad,  flat  backs,  round  (barrel-like)  bodies,  very  fine  small 
bones,  thin  pelts,  and  inclination  to  fat  at  an  early  age.  The 
last  property  is  probably  owing  to  the  before-specified  quali- 
ties, which,  from  observation  and  experience,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  extend  generally  through  every  species  of  domes- 
tic quadrupeds.  The  Dishley  breed  is  not  only  peculiar  for 
the  mutton  being  fat,  but  also  for  the  fineness  of  the  grain; 
the  flavor  is  superior  to  the  mutton  of  most  other  long-wool- 
ed breeds.  The  weight  of  the  carcass  may  be  stated  in 
general :  ewes  three  or  four  years  old,  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-six  pounds  per  quarter;  wethers  two  years  old,  from 
twenty  to  thirty  pounds." 

Among  the  short-ivooled  sheep,  the  English  possess,  be- 
sides the  Merino  breed,  Soiilh  Downs,  the  Ryeland,  the 
Shropshire,  the  Shellcmd,  the  Dorset,  Wills,  8i.c.  &.c.  Merino 
sheep  were  first  introduced  into  Great  Britain  in  the  year 
1787;  and  although  it  was  formerly  a  general  opinion,  that 
the  excellence  of  their  fleece  depended  in  a  great  degree 
upon  the  temperature  of  the  Spanish  climate,  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  the  fineness  of  the  Spanish  wool  is  not  im- 
paired by  breeding  the  sheep  in  England,  France,  Saxony, 
Hungary,  &c. 

It  is  important  in  the  management  of  sheep  to  keep  the 
store  sheep  in  as  equal  condition  as  possible,  but  not  too  fat, 
all  the  year  round.  In  the  grass  season  they  should  be  kept 
in  dry  pastures,  in  which  the  grass  is  short  and  sweet.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  they  should  have  a  steady  and  measured  al- 
18* 


210  THE    COnpLETE   FARMER 

lowance  of  suitable  food,  and  not  sometimes  be  fed  profuse- 
ly, and  at  other  times  scantily. 

3Iortimer  says,  "The  farmer  should  always  buy  his  sheep 
from  a  worse  land  than  his  own,  and  they  should  be  big 
boned,  and  have  a  long  greasy  wool.  For  the  choice  of 
sheep  to  breed,  the  ram  must  be  young,  and  his  skin  of  the 
same  color  with  his  wool;  for  the  lambs  will  be  of  the  same 
color  with  his  skin.  Those  ewes  which  have  no  horns  are 
found  to  be  the  best  breeders." 

The  farmers  of  Europe  know  how  to  distinguish  the  age 
of  sheep  by  their  teeth.  When  a  sheep  is  one  shear,  as  they 
express  it,  that  is,  has  been  sheared  but  once,  or  is  in  its 
second  year,  it  has  two  broad  teeth  before;  when  it  is  two 
shear,  it  will  have  four;  when  three,  six;  when  four  shear, 
or  in  its  fifth  year,  it  will  have  eight  teeth  before.  After 
this,  their  mouths  begin  to  break. 

"  The  fat  pastures  breed  straight,  tall  sheep,  and  the  bar- 
ren hills  square  and  short  ones.  But  the  best  sheep  of  all, 
are  those  bred  upon  new  ploughed  land,  the  reason  of  which 
may  be  easily  guessed,  as  such  land  is  commonly  the  most 
free  from  bad  grasses.  All  wet  and  moist  lands  are  bad  for 
sheep,  especially  such  are  subject  to  be  overflowed,  and  to 
have  sand  and  dirt  left  on  them.  The  salt  marshes  are  an 
exception  tVom  this  general  rule  ;  for  their  saltness  makes 
amends  for  their  moisture;  any  thing  salt,  by  reason  of  its 
drying  qualities,  being  of  great  advantage  to  sheep.  The 
best  time  for  sheep  to  yean,  which  go  twenty  weeks  with 
lamb,  is  in  April,  unless  the  owner  has  any  forward  grass, 
or  turnips.  Ewes  that  are  big  should  be  kept  but  bare  ;  for 
it  is  dangerous  for  them  to  be  fat  at  the  time  of  their  bring- 
ing forth  their  young.  They  may  be  well  fed,  indeed,  like 
cows,  a  fortnight  beforehand,  to  put  them  in  heart." 

31.  Buffon  says,  "  One  ram  will  be  sufficient  for  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  ewes;  but  that  he  should  be  remarkable  for 
strength  and  comeliness;  that  those  which  have  no  horns 
are  very  indifferent;  that  the  head  of  a  ram  should  be  large 
and  thick,  the  forehead  broad,  the  eyes  large  and  black,  the 
nose  short,  the  neck  thick,  the  body  long,  the  back  and 
rump  broad,  the  testicles  large,  and  the  tail  long;  that  the 
best  are  white,  with  a  large  quantity  of  wool  on  the  belly, 
tail,  head  and  ears,  down  to  the  eyes;  that  the  best  sheep 
for  propagation  are  those  which  have  most  wool,  and  that 
close,  long,  silky  and  white;  especially  if  at  the  same  time 
they  have  a  large  bodv,  a  thick  neck,  and  are  light-footed." 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  211 

He  says,  "  That  ewes  fatten  very  fast  during  their  pregnan- 
cy ;  that  as  they  often  hurt  themselves,  and  frequently  mis- 
carry, so  they  sometimes  become  barren;  and  that  it  is  not 
very  extraordinary  for  them  to  bring  forth  monstrous  pro- 
ductions. But  when  properly  tended,  they  are  capable  of 
yeaning  during  the  whole  of  their  life,  or  to  the  age  of  ten 
or  twelve  years.  But  most  commonly  when  they  come  to 
be  seven  or  eight  year  old,  they  begin  to  break,  and  become 
sickly  ;  and  that  a  ram  is  no  longer  fit  for  propagation  after 
eight  years,  at  which  time  he  should  be  fattened  with  the 
old  sheep." 

According  to  the  same  writer,  "  Sheep  should  in  the  sum- 
mer be  turned  out  early  in  the  morning  to  feed;  and  in  four 
or  five  hours,  after  watering,  be  brought  back  to  the  fold,  or 
to  some  shady  place.  At  four  o'clock,  in  the  afternoon, 
they  should  be  turned  to  their  pasture  again,  and  continue 
there  till  evening;  and  were  it  not  for  the  danger  of  wolves, 
they  should  pass  the  night  in  the  open  air,  which  would 
render  them  more  vigorous,  clean,  and  healthy .  As  the  too 
great  heat  of  the  sun  is  hurtful  to  them,  shady  pastures  are 
best  for  them ;  or  else  to  drive  them  to  a  place  with  a  west- 
ern descent  in  the  morning,  and  the  contrary  towards  even- 
ing." That  their  wool  may  be  saved,  they  should  not  be 
pastured  in  bushy  places,  or  where  there  are  briars.  Sheep 
are  often  thus  deprived  of  most  of  their  fleeces;  which,  be- 
sides the  loss  of  the  wool,  is  very  hurtful  to  the  animals, 
when  the  weather  is  not  warm. 

The  above  writer  directs,  "  That  every  year  a  flock  of 
sheep  should  be  e.\amined,  in  order  to  find  out  such  as  begin 
to  grow  old,  and  ought  to  be  turned  ofl"  for  fattening.  As 
they  require  a  particular  management,  so  they  should  be  put 
in  a  flock  by  themselves.  They  should  feed  while  the  grass 
is  moistened  with  dew  in  the  morning.  Salt  should  be  given 
them  to  excite  thirst,  as  the  more  they  drink  the  faster  they 
will  grow  fat.  *  But  to  complete  their  fattening,  and  make 
their  flesh  firm  and  solid,  they  should  have  some  corn  or 
grain  given  them."  They  may  be  fattened  in  the  winter  ; 
but  it  is  commonly  too  expensive,  as  they  will  require  a  good 
deal  of  richer  food  than  hay.  When  sheep  are  once  be- 
come fat,  they  should  be  killed;  for  it  is  said  they  cannot  be 
made  fat  a  second  time.     The  teeth  of  ewes  begin  to  decay 

*  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  salt  given  in  excess  is  injurious  to 
sheep. 


212  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

at  five,  those  of  wethers  at  seven,  and  those  of  rams  not 
until  eight. 

Ewes,  Lambs,  «^c.  It  is  recommended  to  give  ewes  with 
lamb  a  somewhat  more  than  ordinary  quantity  of  food  for 
a  month  or  six  weeks  before  they  are  expected  to  yean; 
not  enough,  however,  to  make  them  fat,  as  dangerous  con- 
sequences might  attend  their  being  in  very  high  condition  at 
that  period.  Turnips  are  said  to  be  injurious  to  ewes  with 
lamb,  but  may  be  well  given  them  after  they  have  yeaned. 
If  your  sheep,  whether  store  sheep  or  ewes  with  lamb,  have 
good  hay,  about  a  quart  of  potatoes  a  day  to  each  will,  it  is 
said,  be  very  beneficial,  and  an  ample  allowance.  But  when 
the  object  is  to  fat  them,  according  to  a  writer  in  Rees'  Cy- 
clopedia, about  a  gallon  of  potatoes  a  day,  with  a  little  hay, 
will  be  the  proper  quantity;  but  this  is  dependent,  in  part, 
on  the  size  of  the  animals,  and  in  part  on  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  the  hay  which  is  allowed  to  them.  Potatoes, 
besides  their  use  as  food  for  sheep,  are  said  to  be  very  ser- 
viceable as  an  article  of  diet,  which  usually  supersedes  the 
necessity  of  medicine.  They  have,  when  given  raw,  an 
opening  or  purgative  quality,  which  is  thought  to  be  of  use, 
and  answer  a  similar  purpose  with  sheep  which  is  effected 
with  swine  by  brimstone  and  antimony.  Potatoes,  baked, 
steamed,  or  boiled,  will  furni,sh  more  nutriment  than  those 
which  are  raw. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  place  in  the  stable  small  tubs  or 
troughs  of  water  for  the  sheep  to  drink  in.  They  will  do 
.very  well  in  summer  without  water,  as  they  feed  when  the 
dew  is  on,  but  they  need  water  in  winter,  especially  if  led 
mostly  on  dry  food.  "  When  sheep  have  colds,  and  dis- 
charge mucus  from  the  nose,  good  feeding,  together  with 
pine  boughs,  given  occasionally,  will  cure  them;  or  tar, 
spread  over  a  board,  over  which  a  little  fine  salt  is  strewed, 
will  induce  the  sheep  to  lick  up  tar,  and  this  will  cure  a 
cold."*  Half  a  gill  of  Indian  corn  a  day,  given  to  each 
sheep  during  winter,  is  recommended  as  keeping  them  in 
good  heart,  preventing  the  wool  from  falling  off",  and  enab- 
ling the  ewes  to  rear  their  young  better  than  they  would  if 
fed  altogether  on  food  of  a  less  substantial  nature. 

*'  When  several  kinds  of  food  can  be  procured,  it  is  right 
to  give  them  alternately  to  the  sheep  at  different  meals,  in 


*  Deane's  New  England  Farmer. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  213 

the  course  of  the  same  day;  the  qualities  of  one  kind  aid  or 
compensate  those  of  another.  At  certain  hours  of  the  day, 
dry  fodder  should  be  given,  and,  at  others,  roots  or  grain. 
If  there  be  any  danger  that  the  roots  may  decay,  the  winter 
should  be  begun  with  them,  mixing,  however,  some  dry  food 
with  them,  for  alone  they  would  not  be  sufficiently  nutri- 
tious. "* 

Writers  do  not  agree  on  the  quantity  of  food  which  a 
given  number  of  sheep  will  consume  to  advantage  in  a  given 
time.  Probably,  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  lay  down  any 
rules  on  the  subject  which  would  not  be  subject  to  very 
nearly  as  many  exceptions  as  coincidences.  Sorrie  seasons 
would  require  more  food  than  others  for  the  same  sheep  ; 
the  same  number  of  sheep  of  different  sizes,  ages,  sexes, 
and  breeds,  would  also  consume  different  quantities  of  food 
of  the  same  quality.  When  we  add  to  these  causes  of  er- 
ror the  consideration  that  food  of  the  same  kind  is  often  very 
different  in  quality, — one  ton  of  clover  hay,  for  example, 
mowed  at  the  right  period  of  its  growth,  and  well  made  and 
housed,  may  be  worth  two  tons  of  the  same  sort  of  hay 
grown  and  made  under  different  circumstances,  —  nothing, 
therefore,  can  be  hoped  for  in  this  inquiry,  except  some  ap- 
proximation to  truth.  We  may,  however,  perhaps  provide 
ourselves  with  materials  for  the  exercise  of  those  qualities 
for  guessing,  for  which  New  England  people  are  celebrated. 
When  a  man  is  laying  in  fodder  for  his  sheep  or  neat  cattle, 
it  may  be  of  great  consequence  to  be  able  to  form  a  con- 
jecture approximating  the  truth,  relative  to  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  provisions  for  that  purpose  which  it  may  be 
expedient  to  accumulate. 

Mr.  Lawrence  says,  "  Sheep  will  eat,  on  an  average, 
twenty  pounds  of  turnips  each  in  twenty-four  hours.  An 
acre  of  good  turnips  in  the  field,  between  November  and 
March,  will  keep  one  hundred  sheep  six  weeks.  One  gallon 
of  raw  potatoes  will  suffice  a  sheep  twenty-four  hours,  but 
some  will  eat  much  more.  Fourteen  hundred  sheep  will  eat 
up  and  spoil  an  acre  of  good  turnips  in  a  night.  Of  the 
quantities  of  hay  and  corn  [grain]  which  a  sheep  will  con- 
sume daily,  I  do  not  recollect  any  accurate  experiments.  To 
feed  liberally  one  hundred  sheep  with  this  precious  article 
throughout  the  winter  season,  ten  tons  at  least  would  be  re- 
quired; although  I   have   lately  been  informed  by  a  great 

*  Tessier's  Treatise  on  Sheep. 


214  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

sheep-master,  that  he  allows  but  that  quantity  to  a  flock  of 
one  thousand;  his  turnips  being  excellent,  with  plenty  of 
grazing  ground. 

"  As  to  corn  [grain],  a  large  sheep  will  eat  several  pints  or 
pounds  per  day;  and  the  comparison  of  quantity  of  food  be- 
tween the  sheep  and  the  ox  may  be  generally  stated  at  one- 
eighth  or  one-ninth  part  for  the  sheep." 

"  One  thing  (says  M.  Tessier)  cannot  be  too  much  recom- 
mended, which  is,  to  place  the  hay  in  the  racks  while  the 
sheep  are  out  of  the  house;  by  this  precaution,  the  dust 
will  not  fall  upon  the  fleeces."  Dr.  Deane  observed,  that 
the  rack  in  which  the  hay  is  put  should  be  upright,  so  that 
in  feeding,  the  seeds,  chaff,  &c.  should  not  fall  into  the  wool 
about  their  necks.  Under  the  rack  should  be  a  trough  for 
catching  the  seeds  of  the  hay  and  feeding  the  sheep. 

With  regard  to  giving  salt  to  sheep,  writers  have  disa- 
greed. It  is  believed  to  be  better  not  to  give  them  any  than 
to  allow  them  too  great  a  quantity.  M.  Tessier  says, 
"  Sheep  have  been  known  to  be  attacked  by  long  and 
troublesome  looseness,  in  consequence  of  having  taken  too 
much  salt;  which  has  induced  the  belief  that  sea-water  is 
poisonous  to  them;  and  that  his  sheep  have  always  been 
healthy,  though  he  had  never  given  them  any  salt.  But  he 
states  that  it  may  be  indispensably  necessary  in  wet  coun- 
tries. And  Dr.  Cooper,  editor  of  the  last  edition  of  the 
Domestic  Encyclopedia,  recommends  one-fourth  of  an  ounce 
a  day  as  a  proper  quantity  for  sheep.  Mr.  Grove  likewise 
says,  "  Salt  is  required  by  sheep  at  intervals  during  the 
whole  year,  but  it  is  often  given  in  too  great  quantity,  and 
almost  forced  upon  the  sheep;  which  is  often  injurious,  and 
often  injures  the  digestion  so  that  the  best  grain  will  pass 
through  them  unaltered." 

The  same  writer  says,  "In  the  season  for  dropping  lambs, 
the  utmost  care  is  necessary.  The  birth  is  most  commonly 
easy,  but  often  slow.  Ignorant  shepherds  are  very  apt  on 
such  occasions  to  be  aiding  in  the  birth,  which  is  always 
useless  and  often  very  injurious." 

"It  often  happens,"  says  Mr.  Grove,  "  that  ewes  will  not 
own  their  lambs,  particularly  the  first  they  bear;  and  in  this 
case  I  would  advise  to  the  sprinkling  a  little  salt  on  the  lamb, 
which  induces  the  ewe  to  lick  it,  after  which  she  will  gene- 
rally allow  it  to  suck.  If  not,  the  ewe  with  her  lamb  should 
be  placed  in  a  separate  inclosure  (of  which  several  should 
be  previously  prepared)  and  fed  with  the  most  nutritious  fod- 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  215 

der,  particularly  with  nourishing  liquids,  that  the  udder  may 
be  uncomfortably  distended;  and  if  this  be  not  sufficient,  she 
must  be  tied  by  the  legs  till  the  lamb  has  been  once  suckled; 
after  which  there  will  be  no  further  difficulty." 

Sir  John  Sinclair  observed,  that  "there  is  no  food  of 
which  sheep  are  fonder  than  pea-straw;  and  where  circum- 
stances are  favorable  for  that  crop,  peas  ought  to  be  cul- 
tivated more  for  the  straw,  from  the  advantages  that  would 
thence  be  d&s'ived  by  the  sheep-farmer."  Mr.  Youno-  also 
observes,  that  "  the  straw  of  early  white  peas,  applied  to 
sheep,  is  the  most  valuable  return  made  by  straw." 

A  writer  for  "  The  New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  IV.  p. 
234,)  with  the  signature  M.  R.  C,  gives  the  following  judi- 
cious remarks  on  sheep. 

"Perhaps  there  is  no  domestic  animal  that  requires  more 
nice  and  constant  attention  than  the  sheep,  and  no  other  that 
will  more  richly  pay  for  generous  keeping.  Though  he  may 
not  be  more  liable  to  disease,  nor  require  a  better  quality  of 
food  than  neat  stock,  still  that  management  which  will  keep 
cattle  in  good  case  will  not  answer  for  sheep.  His  habits 
and  mode  of  feeding  are  entirely  different.  For  instance,  in 
the  winter  season  a  cow  may  be  kept  tied  to  the  stall  twenty- 
two  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four,  and,  if  well  fed  three  times 
a  day,  keep  her  flesh  and  get  sufficient  exercise  for  her 
health.  Serve  a  sheep  in  the  same  manner  and  it  would  not 
probably  live  a  month.  It  is  natural  for  sheep  to  move  about 
and  change  situation.  Turn  a  flock  of  hungry  sheep  into  a 
pasture,  they  will  run  to  the  end  of  it  before  they  begin  to 
eat;  feed  them  in  troughs,  they  will  run  over  all  till  they 
come  to  the  last,  when  they  have  it  in  their  power.  They 
are  almost  continually  shifting  situation  from  hill  to  dale, 
from  one  kind  of  food  to  another;  and  it  is  a  fact  that  sheep 
will  thrive  better  on  two  or  three  different  kinds  of  ordinary 
fodder,  than  they  will  to  be  confined  to  one  kind  that  is  of  a 
superior  quality. 

"  The  proper  time  to  yard  sheep  in  the  fall  is  while  they 
are  yet  in  good  order  from  fresh  feed,  and  before  the  frost 
takes  the  nourishing  qualities  from  the  grass  :  but  a  time  in 
which  many  sheep  are  not  folded,  they  are  left  to  nibble 
over  the  frozen  pastures  till  they  lose  the  flesh  of  half  a 
summer's  keeping,  and  which  takes  half  a  winter  to  regain. 
It  is  a  great  error  which  is  persisted  in  with  an  idea  to  save 
fodder.  But  setting  aside  the  injury  done  pastures  by  close 
feeding  at  this  season  of  the   year,  the   sheep  which  stray 


216  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

away  and  are  lost,  and  the  time  spent  in  hunting  them,  which 
are  not  idle  considerations,  the  farmer  would  more  than  get 
repaid  for  his  extra  fodder,  and  a  few  weeks'  attention  in 
yarding  his  sheep  sooner,  by  preserving  their  health  and 
condition.  When  they  are  put  to  winter-quarters,  they  re- 
quire as  much  variety  as  possible,  not  that  they  want  so 
much  room,  but  they  need  a  number  of  different  apartments. 
Two  yards  and  one  shed  will  do  very  well  for  one  flock,  or, 
what  will  answer  the  same  purpose,  if  a  large  number  of 
sheep  are  to  be  kept  near  each  other,  have  the  yards  in 
a  row,  and  one  more  yard  than  flocks  of  sheep.  Then  by 
shifting  one  flock  to  the  spare  yard  it  leaves  another  vacant, 
and  so  on.  Thus  may  all  be  changed,  which  should  be 
done  at  every  time  of  feeding.  As  fast  as  the  yards  are 
empty,  the  food  should  be  put  in  them,  and  never  while  the 
sheep  are  there.  One  hundred  sheep  are  enough  to  be  kept 
together.  Cleanliness  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Their 
yards  should  be  littered  with  straw  or  something  of  the  kind 
constantly,  or  they  will  be  in  danger  of  losing  in  a  degree  a 
relish  for  their  food. 

"The  next  thing  necessary  is,  to  have  proper  places  for 
your  sheep  to  eat  hay  in,  which  are  the  common  board  man- 
gers, and  may  make  partings  to  the  yards.  Take  six  joists, 
say  three  inches  square,  and  four  feet  long;  have  the  boards 
of  a  length,  then  nail  two  of  them  to  the  joists  set  up  per- 
pendicularly in  such  a  manner  that  one  joist  will  be  in  the 
middle  of  each  board,  and  the  other  two  at  the  ends,  and 
that  the  top  edge  of  the  boards  will  be  one  foot  from  the 
ground;  then  nail  short  boards  on  the  ends  two  feet  and  a 
half  long,  the  width  of  the  manger,  the  next  board  on  the 
sides  to  be  placed  eight  inches  from  the  lower  boards,  then 
board  it  tight  to  the  top  of  the  joists,  and  the  manger  is 
finished.  A  manger  eighteen  feet  long,  of  this  description, 
will  accommodate  thirty  sheep.  Single  mangers  may  be 
made  along  the  outside  fence  of  the  yard,  which  do  not  re- 
quire to  be  so  wide.  The  great  superiority  of  these  man- 
gers over  racks  is,  first,  the  facility  of  putting  hay  into  them 
without  dropping  it  on  the  ground,  secondly,  it  obviates  the 
danger  of  hay-seed  falling  on  the  wool  of  the  sheep  ;  and 
thirdly,  it  prevents  any  waste  of  fodder.  The  next  thing 
after  mangers  for  hay,  should  be  a  place  appropriated  for 
feeding  out  roots,  which  every  farmer  should  raise  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  Although  we  cannot  turn  them  to  so  good  an 
account  as  the  English  feeders  do,  on  account  of  the  severi- 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  217 

ty  of  our  winters,  still  a  proportion  of  them  as  food  for  our 
stock  is  of  great  importance.  In  order  that  the  farmer  may 
make  the  most  of  his  roots,  he  should  have  a  cellar  fixed  to 
receive  them  in  the  fall,  without  too  much  labor,  and  ac- 
cessible at  any  time  in  the  winter,  without  endangering  them 
by  frost.  The  cellar  should  be  placed  as  near  the  yard  as 
practicable,  with  a  watering-place  at  hand.  A  good  way  of 
washing  roots  is,  to  have  an  oblong  box  that  will  hold  two 
or  three  bushels,  with  the  bottom  perforated  with  auger 
holes,  and  rockers  placed  on  the  under  side  of  the  box;  then 
by  pouring  in  a  little  water  and  rocking  them,  the  dirt  will 
directly  wash  through  the  bottom  of  the  box.  They  should 
then  be  cut  fine  with  a  sharp  shovel,  and  they  are  fit  for 
feeding  out.  Browse  in  the  winter  occasionally  for  sheep  is 
very  palatable,  and  is  of  considerable  use  in  preserving  their 
appetite,  and  as  a  change  of  food,  but  care  should  be  taken 
to  select  the  right  kind.  There  are  many  kinds  of  hard 
wood,  of  which  the  bark  and  buds  are  very  injurious.*  The 
bark  of  the  black  cherry  eaten  by  ewes  with  lamb  is  almost 
sure  to  produce  abortion.  Generally  winter  green  is  to  be 
preferred  to  any  other  browse.  White  and  yellow  pine  are 
best. 

"  Regularity  in  feeding  sheep  is  of  prime  consequence  in 
cold  dry  weather.  It  is  not  necessary  to  feed  them  oflener 
than  three  times  a  day,  if  discretion  is  used  in  the  quantity 
of  fodder.  In  warm  weather,  and  especially  if  it  is  muddy, 
they  should  have  little  at  a  time,  and  be  fed  four  or  five 
times  a  day.  Daubenton  and  others  calculate  that  two 
pounds  of  hay  are  sufficient  for  the  support  of  one  sheep  a 
day,  (which,  by  the  way,  in  our  climate  is  not  enough.) 
Calculations  of  this  kind,  if  made  with  the  utmost  accuracy 
on  one,  or  any  number  of  sheep  at  one  time,  will  not  ap- 
ply to  the  same  sheep  at  another;  because  so  much  depends 
on  circumstances.  A  sheep  that  will  eat  three  pounds  of 
hay  in  a  cold  day  will  not,  perhaps,  eat  more  than  two  in  a 
warm  day  following;  and  still  less  in  a  damp  one.  Not  that 
they  require  so  much  more  food  in  cold  weather  than  ia 
warm,  but  that  sudden  changes  afiect  their  appetites  and 
whhout  injuring  their  health.  Again,  a  sheep  of  proper 
form  and  inclination  to  fatten,  Avill  not  need  so  much  nutri- 
ment to  preserve  its  flesh   as  one  of  the   same  weight  of  a 


*  The  wood  disease,  so  much  complained  of  in   France,  is  wholly  owing  to 
sheep's  eating  fresh  hurts. 
19 


218  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

coarse,  rawboned,  uneasy  make.  And  one  kind  of  hay  may 
have  double  the  substantial  qualities  of  another.  Therefore 
no  certain  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  quantity  necessary  for 
their  support;  though  experiments  of  this  kind  are  not  with- 
out their  use,  for,  as  remarked  in  one  of  the  "  New  England 
Farmers,"  they  afford  "  a  fine  opportunity  of  guessing  at  the 
proper  quantity  necessary  to  keep  a  stock  a  given  time." 

"  There  exists  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
proper  time  of  year  for  lambs  to  come.  A  New  '^ork  wri- 
ter thinks  that  rams  should  not  be  taken  from  the  ewes  at 
all;  that  lambs  should  come  early  in  the  winter,  which  is 
the  natural  time.  This  I  think  erroneous;  the  natural  time 
is  the  most  convenient  time,  and  the  proprietor  should  be 
governed  wholly  by  his  means.  There  are  advantages  in 
having  lambs  come  early,  and  disadvantages,  and  vice  versa 
the  same  in  having  them  come  late.  If  a  man  has  con- 
veniences for  guarding  against  cold,  and  plenty  of  succulent 
food  for  his  ewes,  February  and  March  is  decidedly  the 
best  time  for  them  to  come.  It  is  true  that  they  require 
more  attention  at  this  season  than  in  warm  weather,  but  time 
is  not  worth  so  much,  and  the  lambs  learn  to  eat  hay  before 
they  are  turned  to  pasture,  consequently  they  do  much  bet- 
ter the  following  winter.  They  get  out  of  the  way  of  foxes, 
and  are  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  at  washing  and 
shearing  time,  which  is  of  considerable  consequence.  On 
the  contrary,  if  the  farmer  is  deficient  in  proper  food  and 
other  conveniences  for  his  sheep,  and  has  a  pasture  near,  that 
he  can  look  to  his  flock,  it  may  often  be  advisable  to  have 
his  lambs  come  in  April  or  May. 

"When  sheep  are  turned  to  pasture  in  the  spring,  the  tran- 
sition from  dry  food  to  grass  causes  a  relax,  which  spoils,  or 
very  much  injures  a  great  part  of  the  wool  on  their  buttocks 
and  thighs,  and  makes  double  the  work  at  the  time  of  wash- 
ing; therefore,  before  they  are  turned  to  pasture  the  wool  in 
the  way  should  be  carefully  shorn  off,  which  is  very  little 
trouble,  and  makes  a  saving  worth  noticing. 

"  In  selecting  a  flock  of  sheep,  the  first  care  undoubtedly 
should  be,  to  get  those  of  the  evenest  and  finest  wool  ;  the 
next,  those  of  the  best  form  and  most  peaceable  disposition; 
and  the  next  care,  which  is  very  little  thought  of,  to  get  those 
that  are  without  horns.  Any  one  who  has  had  the  manage- 
ment of  sheep  in  the  winter,  can  testify  to  the  injury  which 
large-horned  sheep  do  in  crowding  after  fodder  and  running 
through  gates,  &c.     Horned  rams  kept  with  pregnant  ewes 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  219 

do  great  mischief.  In  many  parts  of  Spain  they  amputate 
the  horns  of  their  rams,  for  which  there  are  various  proces- 
ses: some  use  a  large  chisel;  others  a  saw,  which  is  the 
most  expeditious  way,  and  is  preferable.  There  are  other 
serious  objections  to  the  keeping  of  horned  sheep,  which  I 
cannot  better  exemplify  than  by  quoting  the  following  words 
from  Henry  Cline,  an  eminent  surgeon. 

"  '  Horns  are  useless  in  domestic  animals.  It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  breed  animals  without  them.  The  breeders  of  horn- 
ed cattle  and  horned  sheep  sustain  a  loss  more  extensive 
than  they  may  conceive;  for  it  is  not  the  horn  alone,  but  also 
much  more  bone  in  the  skulls  of  such  animals,  to  support 
their  horns;  besides,  there  is  an  additional  quantity  of  liga- 
ment and  bone  in  the  neck,  which  is  of  small  value.  The 
skull  of  a  ram  with  its  horns  weighed  five  times  more  than 
another  skull  which  was  hornless.  Both  these  skulls  were 
taken  from  sheep  of  the  same  age,  each  being  four  years  old. 
The  great  difference  in  weight  depended  chiefly  on  the  horns, 
for  the  lower  jaws  were  nearly  equal,  one  weighing  seven 
ounces  and  the  other  six  ounces  and  three-quarters;  which 
proves  that  the  natural  size  of  the  head  was  nearly  the  same 
in  both,  independent  of  the  horns  and  the  thickness  of  the 
bone  which  supports  them.  In  a  horned  animal  the  skull  is 
extremely  thick,  in  a  hornless  animal  it  is  much  thinner, 
especially  in  that  part  where  the  horns  usually  grow.' 

"  To  those  who  have  not  reflected  on  the  subject,  it  may 
appear  of  little  consequence  whether  sheep  or  cattle  have 
horns;  but,  on  a  very  moderate  calculation,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  loss  in  farming  stock,  and  also  in  the  diminution  of 
animal  food,  is  very  considerable  from  the  production  of 
horns  and  their  appendages.  A  mode  of  breeding  which 
would  prevent  the  production  of  these,  would  afford  a  con- 
siderable profit  in  an  increase  of  meat  and  wool  and  other 
valuable  parts." 

Shearing  Sheep,  Sfc.  Deane's  "New  England  Farmer  " 
states,  that  "  we  shear  our  sheep  in  general  too  early  in  this 
country.  In  England,  where  the  spring  is  more  forward 
than  in  this  country,  the  approved  time  of  shearing  is  from 
the  middle  to  the  latter  end  of  June.  They  should  be  wash- 
ed in  a  warm  time;  after  this  they  should  run  three  or  four 
days  in  a  clean  pasture,  before  they  are  shorn.  It  is  good 
for  them  to  have  time  to  sweat  a  little  in  their  wool,  after 
washing." 

Mr.  Lawrence  says,  "  June  seems  [in  England]  to  be  the 


220  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

general  shearing  month,  and  where  no  extraordinary  precau- 
tions are  taken,  the  business  had  better  be  delayed  till  to- 
wards midsummer,  more  especially  in  cold,  backward  springs; 
because  in  such  seasons  we  seldom  until  that  period  have 
any  settled  fair  weather.  Besides,  a  more  perfect  fleece  is 
obtained,  and  fuller  of  yolk  from  the  perspiration  of  the  ani- 
mal. 

"  Washing  previous  to  clipping  the  sheep  is  the  general 
custom,  with  few  exceptions,  in  this  country;  indeed  it  is 
proper  with  all  long-wooled  sheep,  but  not  so  easily  practi- 
cable with  the  matted,  greasy,  and  impenetrable  fleeces  of 
the  Spanish  and  carding-wool  breed,  which  in  Spain  they 
invariably  shear  dry,  as  has  been  the  practice  in  Devonshire, 
with  the  short-wooled  sheep,  for  centuries." 

It  is  observed  by  Loudon,  that  "  sheep-shearing,  inRom- 
ney  Marsh  [England],  commences  about  midsummer  and 
finishes  about  the  middle  of  July.  Those  who  shear  latest 
apprehend  that  they  gain  half  a  pound  weight  in  every  fleece, 
by  the  increased  perspiration  of  the  sheep  and  consequent 
growth  of  the  wool.  Besides,  they  say,  in  early  shearing  the 
wool  has  not  the  condition  which  it  afterwards  acquires. 
But  then  in  late  shearing  the  fleece  will  have  the  less  time 
to  grow,  so  as  to  protect  the  animal  against  the  rigors  of  the 
succeeding  winter;  and  if  a  year's  interval  is  allowed  be- 
tween each  clipping  time,  after  your  routine  is  established 
the  wool  will  have  had  the  same  period  for  its  growth, 
whether  you  shear  early  or  late.  Sheep  with  fine  fleeces, 
which  are  shorn  without  being  washed  on  the  back  of  the 
animal,  may  be  clipped  earlier  in  the  season  than  those 
which  are  exposed  to  suffer  for  half  an  hour  or  more  in  cold 
water." 

Lemuel  W.  Briggs,  Esq.,  of  Bristol,  Rhode  Island,  in 
articles  published  in  the  "New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  III. 
pages  273,  287,)  stated  certain  facts,  which  would  seem 
favorable  to  early  shearing;  and  in  certain  circumstances, 
and  particularly  with  sheep  which  are  not  washed,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  but  the  practice  is  beneficial.  Mr.  Briggs  stated, 
in  substance,  that  Mr.  Rouse  Potter,  of  Prudence  island, 
Narraganset  bay,  Rhode  Island,  who  kept  nine  hundred  and 
fifty  sheep,  and  lost  but  two  the  preceding  winter,  begins  to 
shear  them  by  the  1st  of  May,  if  the  weather  is  favorable, 
and  continues  daily,  until  he  completes  his  shearing.  For 
the  first  week,  he  puts  those  sheared  under  cover  or  in  close 
yards  every  night;  by  that  time  the  wool  will  grow  so  as   to 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  221 

give  them  a  sufficient  covering.  By  this  practice  of  early 
shearing  he  gains  much  wool,  which  formerly,  when  he  put 
his  shearing  off  till  the  middle  of  June,  the  sheep  would 
shed;  and  farther,  when  thus  early  sheared,  the  wool  begins 
to  start  and  grow  much  quicker  than  when  shearing  is  deter- 
red to  the  usual  time.  He  says,  that  formerly,  being  expos- 
ed immediately  after  shearing  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  their 
bare  backs  would  frequently  become  sore  and  scabby,  when 
no  wool  will  grow  till  healed,  and  then  what  does  grow  from 
these  scars  is  thinner  and  coarser  than  the  rest. 

"Mr.  Potter  states,  that  he  has  found  from  actual  experi- 
ment, that  he  not  only  gets  more  wool,  which  would  other- 
wise be  lost,  but  the  succeeding  wool  will  be  from  half  an 
inch  to  an  inch  longer,  if  sheared  early,  than  it  will  be  if 
delayed  to  the  usual  time  of  shearing.  And  farther,  there  is 
not  the  same  necessity  for  washing  the  sheep,  as  the  wool  is 
much  cleaner,  more  free  from  sand  and  dirt,  when  taken  off 
early,  than  it  would  be  if  suffered  to  remain  on  their  backs 
until  a  hot  sun  had  compelled  them  to  seek  refuge  under 
walls  and  fences." 

The  foregoing  authorities  are  apparently  altogether  con- 
tradictory, as  respects  the  time  of  year  in  which  to  shear 
sheep.  But  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  Mr.  Potter  did  not 
wash  his  sheep  before  shearing,  which  must  make  considera- 
ble difference  with  regard  to  the  risk  from  cold;  and  Mr. 
Potter  appears  to  have  been  careful  to  shelter  his  sheep 
afler  shearing,  which  must  in  a  great  measure  obviate  the 
disadvantages  of  early  shearing. 

Mr.  Lawrence,  an  eminent  English  writer,  asserts,  "  It 
has  frequently  appeared  to  me,  on  reflection,  that  it  might 
be  preferable  to  shear  all  kinds  of  sheep  unwashed,  and  to 
wash  them  after  shearing,  when  it  would  be  much  more  ef- 
fectual with  respect  to  their  health.  Such  as  were  affected 
with  foulness  or  eruption  of  the  skin  might  be  washed  and 
scrubbed  in  a  lye  of  water  and  wood  ashes,  in  a  large  tub 
which  would  contain  three.  It  would  both  conduce  to  the 
health  of  the  sheep  and  promote  the  regular  growth  of  the 
wool.  Wool  would  probably  keep  best  in  the  grease,  and 
dust  might  be  shaken  from  it.  Any  difficulty  in  respect  to 
fixing  the  price  of  wool  in  an  unwashed  state  would  vanish 
in  a  season  or  two." 

"  Clipping  off  the  coarse  soiled  wool  about  the  thighs  and 
docks,"  says  Loudon,    "  some  weeks  before  the  usual  time 
of  washing  and  clipping  the  sheep,  is  an  excellent  practice,  as 
19* 


222  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

by  this  means  the  sheep  are  kept  clean  and  cool  when  the 
season  is  hot ;  and  with  ewes,  the  udders  are  prevented  from 
becoming  sore." 

In  separating  for  the  purpose  of  washing,  the  flock  is 
brought  to  the  side  of  the  washing-pool,  and  those  lambs 
and  sheep  of  different  kinds  fit  to  be  washed  are  put  into 
separate  inclosures;  and  such  lambs  as  are  too  young  to  be 
clipped  are  not  washed,  but  confined  in  a  fold  or  inclosure  ol 
any  kind,  at  such  a  distance  from  the  washing-place  that 
they  may  not  disturb  their  mothers  by  bleating. 

In  performing  the  operation  of  washing,  it  was  formerly 
the  method  to  have  the  washers  standing  up  to  their  breast 
in  the  water;  but  from  the  inconvenience  and  danger  of  it, 
various  other  modes  of  performing  the  operation  have  been 
proposed.  Among  others,  that  of  sinking  an  empty  hogs- 
head or  other  vessel  of  sufficient  capacity  for  a  man  to 
stand  in  while  washing  the  sheep,  may  be  as  eligible  as  any. 
A  boat  near  a  bold  shore  of  a  sheet  of  water,  with  one  end 
aground,  by  which  the  sheep  is  introduced  and  put  over- 
board, while  the  man  who  washes  him  remains  in  the  boat, 
and  extends  his  arms  over  the  sides,  and  thus  performs  the 
necessary  manipulations,  furnishes  a  convenient  mode  of 
washing  sheep.  A  small  perpendicular  waterfall,  under 
which  sheep  are  conducted,  may  likewise  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage for  that  purpose. 

It  was  uniformly  the  practice,  immediately  after  shearing, 
to  smear  the  bodies  of  sheep  with  some  ointment,  in  which 
tar  is  the  chief  ingredient.  This,  however,  has  been  con- 
demned, as  causing  a  waste  of  wool  in  carding  and  manu- 
facturing into  cloth.  But  if  the  tar  is  mixed  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  some  greasy  substance,  the  benefit  may  be  ob- 
tained, (which  is  to  preserve  against  ticks  and  the  scab,  as 
well  as  to  increase  the  growth  of  the  wool,)  without  any  bad 
consequence  resulting.  A  writer  in  "  Rees'  Cyclopedia," 
on  wool,  says  much  in  favor  of  a  composition  greatly  used  in 
Northumberland,  England,  and  gives  the  following  directions 
for  making  it:  "From  sixteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  butter 
are  placed  over  a  gentle  fire  and  melted;  a  gallon  of  tar  is 
then  added,  and  the  mixture  is  then  stirred  with  a  stick  until 
the  tar  and  butter  are  well  combined,  and  form  a  soft, 
tenacious  ointment."  Some  skill  is  required  in  its  applica- 
tion. The  locks  should  be  divided,  and  the  ointment  ap- 
plied directly  to  the  skin.  It  does  no  good  to  apply  it  to  the 
outside  of  the  wool,  but  it  must  come  in  contact   with  the 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  223 

skill.  This  is  best  effected  by  opening  the  wool  along  the 
neck  and  back,  and  applying  the  ointment  with  the  finger. 
In  short,  you  must  apply  it  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  be 
most  Hkely  to  spread  over  every  part  of  the  body.  The 
quantity  laid  on  each  animal  differs  in  different  districts.  In 
the  lighter  mode  of  greasing,  one  gallon  of  tar  and  twenty 
pounds  of  butter  will  be  sufficient  for  fifty  sheep.  In  Scot- 
land, where  greasing  is  applied  merely  to  preserve  the  ani- 
mal from  inclemency  of  the  climate,  a  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  tar  is  used.  This  would  be  very  injurious  to  the 
wool  were  it  any  other  but  the  coarsest  kind.  To  derive 
the  greatest  advantage  from  the  ointment,  both  to  the  wool 
and  the  sheep,  it  should  be  applied  immediately  after  shear- 
ing, and  again  on  the  approach  of  winter.  By  the  first 
greasing,  the  wool  will  be  kept  soft  and  moist  during  the 
suhry  heats  of  July  and  August,  and  the  top  of  the  staple 
will  not  become  harsh  and  discolored.  One  acknowledged 
advantage  of  greasing  immediately  after  shearing  should 
not  be  overlooked  :  it  destroys  the  sheep  tick,  and  has  a 
tendency  to  prevent  cutaneous  distempers,  and  to  protect 
the  skin  against  the  bite  of  the  fly. 

Mr.  J.  Nelson  published  a  recipe  for  the  scab  on  sheep, 
similar  to  the  above,  but  which  we  should  suppose  might 
answer  a  still  better  purpose;  it  is  as  follows:  "  Take  three 
gallons  of  tar  and  three  gallons  of  train  oil,  boiled  together, 
to  which  add  three  pounds  of  roll  brimstone,  finely  powdered 
and  stirred  in."  This  quantity  is  sufficient  for  ninety  sheep. 
It  is  poured  on  with  a  pitcher  or  ladle  from  the  top  of  the 
backbone  to  the  tail. 

When  the  object  is  solely  the  destruction  of  ticks,  a  strong 
decoction  of  tobacco  is  probably  as  good  an  application  as 
can  be  prescribed.  Lambs  often  suffer  much  from  ticks, 
after  the  sheep  are  sheared;  as  the  ticks  which  are  driven 
from  the  old  sheep  take  refuge  with  the  lambs.  It  will, 
therefore,  be  advisable  to  apply  either  the  ointment  or  the 
tobacco  decoction  to  the  lambs  as  well  as  to  their  elders. 
And  in  all  cases  see  that  your  application  goes  to  and 
spreads  over  the  skin  as  equally  as  possible,  instead  of  wet- 
ting or  smearing  the  outside  surface  of  the  fleece,  where  it 
will  be  of  more  harm  than  benefit. 

On  the  Disorders  of  Sheep.  The  following  observations 
are  extracted  from  an  Essay  on  Sheep,  written  by  H.  D.  G., 
a  scientific  shepherd,  who  has  been  acquainted  with  sheep 


224  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

husbandry,  as  practised  by  the  tcool-groivers  of  Saxony, 
France,  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 

"Ahnost  all  the  disorders  which  attack  sheep  are  caused 
by  the  want,  and  seldom  or  never  by  the  excess  of  activity  ia 
the  vital  organs.  The  nerves  are  very  susceptible,  but  sel- 
dom act  with  great  force,  and  whenever  they  are  powerfully 
excited,  this  excitement  soon  passes  off  and  leaves  the  ani- 
mal extremely  weak.  It  follows  from  this,  that  most  of  the 
means  required  for  the  cure  of  diseases  among  sheep  should 
be  calculated  rather  to  excite  than  to  allay  the  activity  of  the 
functions  of  life.  A  few  of  the  most  common  diseases 
among  sheep  deserve  to  be  particularly  noticed. 

"  The  Rot  exhibits  itself  scarcely  at  all  externally.  The 
blood  loses  its  high  color  and  tendency  to  coagulate,  and  be- 
comes watery.  The  first  perceptible  symptom,  therefore,  is 
the  loss  of  the  bright  red  appearance  about  the  eyes;  the 
lips  and  inside  of  the  mouth  also  become  pale,  as  well  as  the 
skin  generally  under  the  wool.  The  animal  continues  to 
feed  well  and  does  not  grow  poor,  although  the  natural  vi- 
vacitv  is  diminished  and  some  signs  of  weakness  occur. 

"  The  disease  commonly  gains  strength  in  the  winter. 
Watery  swellings  are  formed,  particularly  under  the  chin, 
which  are  often  absorbed  and  then  reappear.  Soon  after 
these  the  animal  generally  dies,  without  showing  any  symp- 
toms of  violent  pain.  Ewes  attacked  by  this  disease  die 
most  commonly  about  the  time  of  dropping  their  lambs. 
The  body  on  opening  exhibits  copious  collections  of  water 
about  the  chest  and  entrails;  the  blood  is  extremely  pale  as 
well  as  the  flesh.  This  disorder  is  unquestionably  caused 
by  feeding  in  swampy  grounds,  and  a  few  hours  are  suffi- 
cient to  fix  it  upon  a  sheep.  It  is  increased  by  damp,  foggy 
weather,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  dry  warm  weather  and 
high  pasture,  especially  where  there  are  many  aromatic 
herbs,  are  sometimes  sufficient  to  counteract  the  first  symp- 
toms and  effect  a  cure.  This  disorder,  however,  when  it 
has  reached  such  a  point  that  a  common  observer  may  no- 
tice the  symptoms,  is  probably  incurable.  At  a  very  early 
stao-e  a  cure  is  possible,  if  the  flock  is  kept  carefully  on  high 
land  where  aromatic  herbs  are  abundant,  and  particularly 
among  juniper  bushes,  and  in  bad  weather  carefully  housed 
and  well  fed.  Horse-chestnuts  are  an  excellent  article  for 
fodder  in  this  case;  also  a  mixture  of  juniper  berries,  worm- 
wood, sage,  gentian,  angelica  roots,  willow  bark,  and  other 
bitter  herbs,  with  a  little  salt  and  grain,  which  they  will  eat 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  225 

of  their  own  accord,  or  if  not,  it  should  be  administered  in 
small  quantities  in  the  morning  before  they  are  driven  to 
pasture.  If  the  rot  makes  its  appearance  in  a  decided  man- 
ner before  the  winter  sets  in,  it  is  useless  to  attempt  any 
thing  more  than  to  fatten  the  animal  as  soon  as  may  be  and 
sell  him  to  the  butcher.  The  rot  certainly  is  not  infectious, 
and  it  very  often  occurs  that  only  a  few  sheep  are  attacked 
in  large  flocks;  and  generally,  in  such  cases,  if  the  shepherd 
is  honest,  the  disease  may  be  traced  in  every  case  to  some 
swamp  or  other  wet  place,  where  these  particular  sheep  may 
have  strayed. 

"  The  Moulh  and  Hoof  Distemper.  These  complaints 
seem  to  have  a  mutual  connexion,  since  the  former,  which  is 
the  mildest,  very  often  precedes  the  latter.  In  the  mouth, 
the  principal  evil  to  be  feared  is,  that  the  sheep  become  ema- 
ciated from  the  inability  to  eat.  The  best  remedy  is  to  bathe 
the  parts  affected  with  a  strong  decoction  of  sage,  mixed 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  vinegar  and  a  little  honey.  If  the 
blisters  continue  to  spread,  half  an  ounce  of  blue  vitriol 
should  be  added  to  a  quart  of  this  mixture.  The  disorder  in 
the  hoofs  is  soon  discovered  by  lameness,  and  if  this  is  evi- 
dently not  produced  by  any  external  injury,  and  especially 
if  several  sheep  in  a  flock  are  attacked  at  the  same  time, 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  obviate  the  effects  of  this  dis- 
order. The  best  remedy  is  a  poultice  of  dough,  or  fat  loamy 
clay,  which  should  be  applied  to  the  foot  by  means  of  a  little 
bag,  but  not  tied  hard  to  the  ankle,  and  kept  constantly  wet 
with  vinegar,  till  a  swelling  appears  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
foot  or  in  the  cleft  of  the  hoof.  This  should  then  be  opened 
with  a  sharp  knife  and  the  dead  hoof  pared  off.  The  wound 
must  be  washed  with  cold  water  and  sprinkled  with  dry  vitriol. 
The  lame  animals  should  remain  carefully  separated  from  the 
sound  ones,  and  the  washing  and  sprinkling  with  vitriol  re- 
peated till  the  cure  is  effected.  This  disease  is  not  only 
contagious,  but  also  infectious,  in  the  highest  degree,  and 
oftentimes  so  violent  as  to  produce  caries  in  the  bone  after 
the  hoof  is  destroyed. 

"  The  Itch  or  Scab.  This  disorder  is  dreaded  more  than 
any  other,  and  did,  in  fact,  more  damage  in  many  districts 
than  any  other,  until  the  proper  mode  of  treatment  was  dis- 
covered. The  scab  is  certainly  contagious,  and  may  readily 
be  propagated  by  merely  touching  the  skin  of  a  healthy  ani- 
mal with  matter  from  a  pustule  on  another  sheep  ;  but  as  far 
as  my  observation  has  extended,  the  infection  is  not  conveyed 


226  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

through  the  atmosphere,  though  it  often  seeras  to  he  epi- 
demic, and  particularly  in  very  damp  summers,  which  affect 
sheep  in  many  other  ways  so  unfavorably. 

"  It  is  discovered  by  the  animal's  constantly  rubbing  or 
scratching  itself,  and  making  at  the  same  time  a  peculiar 
motion  with  the  lips  ;  the  scabs  are  sometimes  drv  and  some- 
times moist,  and  spread  very  rapidly,  though  the  animal  con- 
tinues healthy  in  other  respects,  and  generally  more  lively 
than  before.  Afterwards,  however,  the  disorder  becomes 
internal,  the  sheep  becomes  emaciated,  and  dies  from  weak- 
ness and  pain.  If  the  scab  is  observed  at  an  early  period  it 
may  be  easily  cured,  or  at  least  prevented  from  spreading. 
One  of  the  best  remedies  is  a  strong  decoction  of  tobacco, 
to  be  applied  to  the  diseased  parts  after  scratching  off  the 
scabs  with  a  comb  or  other  instrument.  The  decoction  of 
tobacco  mixed  with  lime-water  and  oil  of  vitriol,  and  used 
constantly,  for  some  time,  will  generally  effect  a  radical  cure; 
another  excellent  remedy  is  a  decoction  of  hellebore  mixed 
with  vinegar,  sulphur,  and  spirits  of  turpentine.  Internal 
remedies  are  of  no  use,  except  when  the  disorder  has  induc- 
ed other  complaints  by  weakening  the  general  health. 

"  The  Sheep-Pox.  This  disorder  is  contagious,  and  prop- 
agates itself  by  exhalation  from  the  sick  to  the  healthy  ani- 
mal, but  it  has  not  yet  been  discovered  how  far  these  exha- 
lations may  extend.  If,  however,  it  appears  in  a  neighbour- 
ing flock,  care  should  be  taken  to  mitigate  its  effects  by  a 
general  and  careful  inoculation,  since  it  is  certain  that  the 
disorder  is  less  violent  if  taken  by  inoculation  than  in  the 
natural  way.  The  operation  is  perfectly  simple  and  easy. 
The  animal  is  laid  on  its  back  and  held  by  two  or  three  men, 
while  the  operator  introduces  the  matter,  from  a  pustule  five 
or  six  days  old,  in  two  or  three  places  between  the  legs  or 
on  the  tail.  The  lancet  should  be  introduced  in  a  slanting 
direction  under  the  skin  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch,  and 
M'hen  it  is  withdrawn,  the  skin  should  be  pressed  down  upon 
it  so  as  to  wipe  off  the  matter  and  leave  it  in  the  wound.  A 
pustule  is  formed  generally  in  four  days,  and  reaches  its 
greatest  size  on  the  sixth,  when  a  few  others  generally  ap- 
pear near  the  first.  Soon  after  this,  the  usual  symptoms  of 
fever  and  general  eruption  take  place,  which  last  is,  howev- 
er, more  regular  and  safe,  than  if  the  animal  had  taken  the 
disease  without  inoculation.  The  only  care  necessary  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  the  disorder  is  to  keep  the  sheep  in  a 
cool  and  airy  situation.     Internal  remedies  are  not  required, 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  227 

but  the  sores  should  be  often  washed  with  a  strong  infusion 
of  camomile  flowers,  in  which  a  little  blue  vitriol  has  been 
previously  dissolved,  and  afterwards  dressed  with  a  salve 
made  of  yolks  of  eggs  and  turpentine,  mixed  with  a  little 
powdered  charcoal. 

"  The  Reeling  Sickness  is  never  infectious,  but  generally 
incurable.  Its  first  symptoms  are  a  weakness  in  the  gait, 
and  a  disposition  in  tiie  animal  affected  to  remain  separate 
from  the  flock.  The  head  is  thrown  into  an  unnatural  pos- 
ture, generally  on  one  side.  The  animal  then  begins  to 
turn  round,  always  in  one  direction  ;  stumbles  and  falls  re- 
peatedly, sometimes  with  the  head  under  the  body,  then 
ceases  to  feed,  and  soon  dies.  Lambs  and  yearlings  only 
are  usually  liable  to  this  disorder,  and  very  rarely  sheep  over 
two  years  old.  The  seat  of  the  disorder  is  always  to  be  dis- 
covered on  the  brain,  where  one  or  more  blisters  are  formed 
and  filled  with  a  watery  secretion.  The  origin  of  this  com- 
plaint, and  of  course  the  proper  preventive  treatment,  re- 
main as  yet  undiscovered.  A  cure  is  sometimes  effected  by 
an  operation  through  the  skull  to  let  off  the  water.  The  first 
step  in  this  case  is  to  examine  the  skull  carefully  in  search 
of  a  soft  spot  in  the  bone,  which  usually  indicates  the  spot 
affected.  The  skull  is  then  perforated  with  a  trocar,  accom- 
panied by  a  tube  through  which  the  water  may  escape  ; 
after  which  the  tube  also  is  withdrawn  and  a  few  drops  of  the 
essence  of  myrrh  applied  to  the  aperture.  This  operation 
is  sometimes  successful,  but  more  often  the  reverse.  If  it 
succeeds,  however,  in  only  one  cure  out  of  five,  it  seems 
worth  the  trial,  since  without  some  relief  the  sheep  must 
certainly  perish. 

"  Swelled  Paunch.  When  sheep  or  other  ruminating  ani- 
mals eat  more  than  they  can  digest,  the  food  ferments  in  the 
stomach,  emitting  great  quantities  of  gas,  which  stretch  this 
organ  so  as  to  draw  together  its  apertures,  the  paunch  be- 
comes excessively  distended,  the  lungs  oppressed,  the  breath 
and  pulse  obstructed,  and  the  death  is  very  sudden.  This  ef- 
fect may  be  produced  by  fodder  of  any  kind,  but  most  readily 
by  such  as  the  sheep  prefer,  especially  if  they  are  not  accus- 
tomed to  it.  Green  clover  and  lucerne  have,  therefore, 
often  been  observed  to  bring  on  this  disorder  ;  but  it  is  nev- 
ertheless certain,  that  neither  of  these  substances  are  in 
themselves  injurious,  since  I  have  known  sheep  accustomed 
to  them  eat  their  fill  day  after  day,  for  months  together,  with- 
out suffering  any  ill  consequence.     Any  young  green  feed  is 


228  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

more  likely  to  be  hurtful  in  this  way  than  dry  fodder;  but 
only  when  eaten  in  excess  after  long  abstinence.  If  the  ap- 
proach of  the  swelling  is  observed  in  season,  it  may  be  pre- 
vented by  violent  friction  of  the  back  and  belly  and  driving 
the  sheep  rapidly.  These  remedies  are  assisted  by  a  previ- 
ous dose  of  lime-water,  which  should  be  repeated  half  an 
hour  afterwards,  taking  care  that  the  lime  is  good  and  not 
previously  air-slacked.  If  the  attack  is  so  violent  as  to 
leave  no  time  for  these  remedies,  an  opening  must  be  made 
in  the  paunch  with  the  trocar  and  sheath  ;  an  operation 
which  cannot  easily  be  described,  but  may  be  exhibited  with- 
out any  difficulty  to  any  person  unacquainted  with  it." 

A  writer  in  "  The  New  York  Farmer,"  says  :  "A  gen- 
tleman who  was  losing  his  sheep,  without  apparent  cause,  had 
occasion  to  use  some  clay  about  his  house  in  the  winter,  and 
observed  that  his  sickly  flock  ate  it  with  avidity;  he  caused 
a  load  to  be  placed  in  their  yard,  much  of  which  was  devour- 
ed and  his  sheep  speedily  recovered."  As  a  cure,  therefore, 
I  would  recommend  clay  to  be  placed  in  the  sheep-yard, 
which  can,  at  worst,  do  no  harm,  as  the  animals  will  not  eat 
it  unless  prompted  by  instinct;  or,  when  it  is  practicable,  the 
boughs  or  branches  of  resinous  trees,  as  the  pine  and  hem- 
lock, may  be  given  to  the  flock  in  limited  quantities.  Roots 
of  any  edible  kind  will  also  be  highly  serviceable.  As  a 
preventive  in  future,  I  advise  sheep-farmers  to  raise  and  lay 
in  a  good  stock  of  ruta  baga  or  other  turnips,  which  are  not 
only  the  healthiest  but  cheapest  food  for  the  winter  consump- 
tion of  sheep. 

Worms  in  the  head  of  Sheep.  There  exists  in  some  parts 
of  the  country  a  species  of  fly,  which  naturalists  call  (Estrus 
ovis,  of  the  same  genus  with  that  which  deposits  eggs  in  the 
hair  of  horses,  and  causes  hots.  This  fly  attacks  sheep, 
from  about  the  middle  of  August  to  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber, deposits  its  eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  the  animals,  and 
causes  those  wo7'ms  which  so  frequently  destroy  them.  The 
"Mechanic's  Gazette"  recommends,  as  a  preventive,  "cov- 
ering the  nostrils  of  sheep  with  a  list  of  gauzy  substance, 
through  which  the  animal  can  breathe,  and  keeping  it  in  its 
place  by  some  adhesive  substance."  We  doubt,  how- 
ever, the  practicability  of  "  keeping  it  in  its  place  "  by  any 
"adhesive  substance."  Another  preventive  which  sheep- 
owners  tell  us  is  effectual,  is  to  keep  the  noses  of  the  sheep 
constantly  smirched  with  tar,  from  about  the  middle  of  Au- 
gust to  the  latter  end  of  September.     If  the  sheep  swallow 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  229 

some  of  the  tar,  so  much  the  better,  as  it  prevents  or  cures 
the  rot,  and  confirms  their  health. 

If  the  fly  has  performed  its  mischievous  function,  and  the 
seeds  of  the  disorder  are  already  sown,  you  may  make  use 
of  the  following  : 

"Take  half  a  pound  of  good  Scotch  snuff,  pour  two 
quarts  of  boiling  water  on  it,  stir  it  and  let  it  stand  till  cold  ; 
inject  about  a  table-spoonful  of  this  liquid  and  sediment  up 
each  nostril  of  the  sheep  with  a  syringe.  This  must  be 
repeated  three  or  four  times,  at  proper  intervals,  from  the 
middle  of  October  to  the  1st  of  January;  the  grubs  are  then 
small  and  are  much  easier  destroyed  than  afterwards,  and 
have  not  injured  the  sheep,  as  they  will  if  deferred  until  la- 
ter. Half  an  ounce  of  assafoetida,  pounded  in  a  little  water 
and  added  to  the  snuff,  will  make  it  more  effectual.  The 
owner  of  the  sheep  need  not  be  alarmed,  when  the  operation 
is  performed,  to  see"  the  sheep  very  drunk  and  apparently  in 
the  agonies  of  death,  as  they  will  in  a  few  minutes  recover. 
Dry  snuff  may  be  blown  up  the  nose  with  a  quill,  and  have 
a  good  effect;  but  it  is  a  tedious,  dirty  job." 

-Instead  of  "  Scotch  snuff,"  a  decoction  of  tobacco  will 
answer  the  purpose.  A  gentleman  who  owns  a  large  flock 
of  sheep  informs  us,  that  he  had  used  it  with  perfect  success. 
Spirits  of  turpentine  have  been  injected  into  the  nostrils  of 
sheep,  as  a  remedy  for  worms;  but  that  substance  appears  to 
possess  one  material  disadvantage,  which  should  preclude  its 
use  for  that  purpose,  viz.  when  thrown  into  the  nostrils  it 
kills  the  sheep  as  well  as  the  worms. 

Mr.  Alexander  Reed,  of  Washington,  Pennsylvania,  in  an 
article  on  the  management  of  sheep,  published  in  "  The  New 
England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  III.  p.  60,)  observes,  that  "  daub- 
ing the  sheep's  nose  with  tar  is  considered  as  a  protection 
against  this  enemy.  What  experience  I  have  had  is  rather 
calculated  to  strengthen  this  opinion.  I  have  always  made 
free  use  of  tar  among  my  sheep,  and  I  do  not  know  that  I 
ever  lost  one  by  the  worms  in  the  head." 

It  is  said  by  some  writers  that  if  sheep  are  kept  in  good 
condition  there  is  no  danger  of  their  suffering  greatly  from 
worms  in  the  head;  as  they  will  be  strong  enough  to  expel 
the  insects  by  sneezing.  This  may  be;  but  still,  the  applica- 
tion of  tar  to  the  noses  of  the  animals  would  prove  servicea- 
ble by  preventing  their  being  teased  by  the  fly,  which  causes 
great  pain  and  distress  at  the  time  the  nits  are  deposited,  as 
well  as  eventuates  in  the  disease  of  the  sheep. 
CIO 


230  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

HORSE.  One  of  the  most  useful  of  tame  quadrupeds. 
The  marks  or  evidences  of  a  good  one  are  these;  a  high 
neck,  a  full  breast,  a  lively  eye,  a  strong  back,  a  stiff  dock, 
full  buttocks,  ribs  reaching  near  to  the  hips,  well-made 
hoofs,  rather  large,  and  a  good  gait. 

The  size  of  a  horse  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  work 
in  which  he  is  chiefly  to  be  employed.  Small  sized  ones 
often  prove  good  in  the  saddle.  They  are  apt  to  be  hardy, 
and,  in  proportion  to  their  size  and  the  quantity  of  their  eat- 
ing, usually  are  the  most  profitable.  Plough  horses,  and  all 
drauglit  horses,  should  be  large,  as  their  weight  is  of  impor- 
tance in  drawing  ;  as  it  is  often  inconvenient  to  put  two 
horses  to  one  plough,  especially  in  horse-hoeing.  Large- 
ness is  also  of  importance,  when  they  are  used  single,  in 
journeying,  as  they  most  usually  are,  in  a  chaise  or  sleigh. 

A  horse's  manner  of  going  is  a  matter  of  no  small  impor- 
tance. The  ambling  gait,  or  what  in  this  country  is  vulgar- 
ly called  pacing,  is  not  good,  either  for  the  hoi'se  or  the 
rider.  It  is  tiresome  to  both.  It  habituates  a  horse  to 
carry  his  feet  too  near  to  the  ground,  so  that  he  is  the  more 
liable  to  trip  and  stumble. 

The  method  so  much  practised  formerly,  in  this  country, 
of  teaching  horses  to  pace  swiftly,  and  racing  in  that  gait,  is 
highly  pernicious.  It  puts  them  to  a  much  greater  strain 
than  running  ;  and  numbers  have  been  thus  ruined.  Some 
colts  naturally  amble,  and  others  trot.  But  all  may  be  made 
to  trot,  if  due  care  and  pains  be  taken  with  them  while  they 
are  young,  or  as  soon  as  they  are  first  ridden.  In  a  carriage 
an  amble  is  tiresome  to  a  horse,  appears  highly  improper, 
and  is  disgusting  to  every  one  ;  and  I  do  not  see  why  it 
should  appear  at  all  more  tolerable  in  the  saddle.  When 
any  change  of  gait  is  wanted  for  the  ease  of  the  rider,  the 
canter  is  to  be  preferred,  than  which  none  can  be  more 
easy. 

The  way  of  breaking  a  young  horse  that  is  mostly  used  in 
this  country  is  highly  absurd,  hurtful,  and  dangerous.  He 
is  mounted  and  ridden  before  he  has  been  used  to  the  bridle 
or  to  bearing  any  weight  on  his  back.  If  he  will  not  go  for- 
ward, he  is  most  unmercifully  beaten;  by  which  his  spirits 
are  broken  and  his  strength  impaired.  If  he  rears  up,  he  is 
pulled  backwards,  with  the  risk  of  hurting  both  horse  and 
man.  If  he  runs  and  starts,  as  he  probably  will,  under  such 
management,  he  flings  the  rider,  perhaps  is  frightened,  gains 
his  liberty,  and  is  encouraged  to  do  just  so  the  next  opportu- 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  231 

nity;  and  the  unfortunate  rider  blesses  himself,  as  he  has 
reason  to  do,  if  he  escapes  without  broken  limbs.  Or,  if 
the  horse  should  chance  to  go  kindly,  the  rider  continues 
the  exercise  till  the  horse  is  fatigued,  discouraged,  and  in- 
jured. 

Instead  of  this  mad  management,  the  way  practised  in  the 
older  countries  should  be  adopted.  Let  a  horse  first  of  all 
be  tamed  with  the  bridle,  by  leading  him  again  and  again  ; 
in  the  first  place,  after  or  by  the  side  of  another  horse;  and 
afler  he  walks  well,  bring  him  to  trot  after  his  leader.  In 
the  next  place,  put  on  the  saddle,  and  lead  him  in  that,  time 
after  time.  Then  lay  a  small  weight  on  the  saddle,  and  if 
he  be  apt  to  start,  fasten  it,  that  it  may  not  be  flung  off;  in- 
creasing the  weight  from  time  to  time,  till  he  learns  to  carry 
what  is  equal  to  a  man's  weight.  Lastly,  let  a  man  gently 
mount  him,  while  another  holds  him  by  the  bridle,  and  fix 
himself  firmly  on  the  saddle.  The  place  of  riding  is  recom- 
mended to  be  a  ploughed  field.  Let  him  thus  be  ridden  with 
a  horse  going  before  him,  till  he  learn  the  use  of  the  bit,  and 
will  stop  or  go  forward  at  the  pleasure  of  the  rider,  and 
without  the  application  of  much  force.  Being  exercised  in 
this  manner  a  few  times,  and  treated  with  all  possible  gentle- 
ness, there  will  be  no  more  occasion  for  leading  him.  He 
will  go  well  of  himself;  and  be  thoroughly  broken,  without 
so  much  as  giving  him  one  blow,  and  without  danger  or 
fatigue  to  the  horse  or  his  rider.  And,  what  is  much  to  be 
regarded,  the  horse's  spirits  will  be  preserved,  though  he  be 
sufficiently  tamed.  In  teaching  a  horse  to  draw,  gentleness 
must  be  used.  He  should  be  tried  first  in  company  with 
other  horses,  whether  in  carting  or  ploughing  ;  and  the 
draught  should  not  be  so  heavy  as  to  fret  him  or  put  him  to 
great  exertion  till  he  has  learned  to  draw  steadily.  After 
this  he  may  be  put  to  draw  light  loads  by  himself  Lastly, 
he  may  be  put  to  a  pleasure  carriage,  but  coupled  with 
another  rather  than  alone,  and  to  a  sleigh  rather  than  a 
chaise. 

It  may  be  taken  for  a  general  rule,  that  the  gait  which  is 
easiest  to  a  horse  will  be  the  easiest  to  his  rider  ;  for  jaded 
horses,  it  has  always  been  observed,  are  apt  to  go  hard,  and 
to  tire  their  riders. 

The  feeding  of  horses  has  not  been  sufficiently  attended 
to  in  this  country ;  which  is,  doubtless,  one  reason  why  they 
are  in  general  so  mean  and  despicable.  Too  many  keep 
horses  who  cannot  well  afford  to  feed  them.     They  should 


2-j-i  THE   COMrLETi:   FARMER 

neither  run  upon  the  roads  and  commons,  nor  in  pastures 
that  are  tilled  with  wild  and  water  grasses.  They  love  a  dry 
pasture,  not  too  much  shaded,  and  short  grasses  of  the  best 
kinds.  Clover  and  white  honey-suckle,  both  green  and  dry, 
are  excellent  food  for  them.  It  nourishes  them  well,  and 
prevents  costiveness,  which  is  very  hurtful  to  them.  The 
best  of  clover  hay  will  keep  them  as  well  as  most  other  kinds 
of  hay  with  oats. 

To  fit  a  horse  for  a  journey  he  should  not  be  suffered  to 
grow  too  fat  and  gross.  He  should  for  some  time  be  kept  in 
the  stable  rather  than, in  the  pasture,  and  fed  mostly  with 
hay  and  provender;  but  rather  sparingly  if  he  incline  to  be 
fat.  He  should  have  exercise  daily,  to  harden  his  flesh  and 
keep  him  in  the  habit  of  travelling.  He  should  be  shod 
some  days  before  he  begins  a  journey,  that  the  shoes  may  be 
well  settled  to  his  feet,  and  the  nails  a  little  rusted  at  the 
points,  that  they  may  hold  the  faster.  And  the  pads  of  the 
saddle  should  be  well  fitted  to  his  back,  so  as  to  fill  the  hol- 
lows, and  bear  equally  on  every  part.  And  while  he  is  on 
the  journey,  he  should  be  stabled  every  night.  It  is  de- 
structive to  expose  a  horse  to  the  dampness  and  cold  of  the 
night  after  severe  exercise.  But  it  would  be  best  if  neither 
horses  nor  any  of  our  cattle  were  wholly  confined  to  dry 
meat  in  winter.  Horses  indicate  this  by  their  eating  snow 
with  their  hay.  Set  a  basket  of  snow  within  reach  of  a 
horse,  when  he  is  at  his  manger,  and  he  will  take  a  mouth- 
ful from  each  alternately.  Of  all  juicy  food  for  horses  in 
winter,  writers  on  husbandry  seem  to  give  carrots  the  prefer- 
ence. They  have  been  found  by  experience  to  answer  well 
instead  of  oats  for  laboring  horses;  and  to  fatten  those  which 
are  lean. 

He  that  would  be  sure  to  keep  his  horse  in  good  order 
must  beware  whom  he  suffers  to  ride  him,  and  must  see  that 
he  is  never  abused.  Profuse  sweating  should  always  be 
avoided.  And  when  a  horse  is  much  warmed  by  exercise 
he  should  not  be  exposed  to  cold  air  nor  night  dew,  and 
much  less  to  rain  and  snow.  If  he  cannot  be  instantly  rub- 
bed down  and  housed  when  warm,  he  should  be  covered  with 
a  blanket;  and  he  should  always  have  a  dry  stable,  and  be 
well  littered.  The  neglect  of  these  precautions  may  bring 
on  incurable  disorders. 

Horses  should  not  be  too  much  deprived  of  the  liberty  of 
motion,  as  they  too  often  are.  Close  confinement  after  hard 
labor  -will  be  apt  to  abate  their   circulations  too  suddenly. 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  233 

make  them  chilly,  and  stiffen  their  joints.  To  be  deprived 
of  motion  is  bad  for  man  and  beast.  Horses  therefore 
should  not  be  straitened  for  room  in  their  stables.  Stables 
should  not  be  so  low  as  to  prevent  their  tossing  up  their 
heads  as  high  as  they  please.  Some  stables  have  so  little 
room  overhead  as  to  bring  horses  into  a  habit  of  carrying 
their  heads  too  low  ;  they  become  afraid  to  lift  them  up. 
They  should  also  have  room  in  their  stables  to  turn  their 
heads  to  any  part  of  their  bodies,  that  they  may  defend 
themselves  from  the  biting  of  insects,  allay  itching,  &c. 
And  their  halters  should  always  be  so  long  and  their 'stables 
so  wide,  that  they  may  lie  down  conveniently.  Nor  should 
horses  be  so  placed  as  to  be  able  to  deprive  each  other  of 
his  fodder. 

When  horses  are  kept  in  stables,  as  they  generally  are  in 
the  coldest  half  of  the  year,  they  should  be  daily  dressed,  as 
it  is  called.  The  curry-comb  and  the  brush  should  be  vvell 
used  on  all  parts  of  their  skin  which  are  covered  with  hair. 
This  increases  perspiration  through  the  pores  of  the  skin, 
which  is  necessary  to  health;  and  causes  the  blood  to  move 
faster  in  the  veins.  This  treatment  will  not  only  cause  them 
to  look  better,  but  they  will  have  better  health,  and  more 
activity  and  courage.  They  will  digest  their  food  better, 
and  be  better  for  service.  But  if  rubbing  and  friction  be 
wholly  neglected,  or  slightly  performed,  the  hair  will  appear 
dry  and  rough;  the  perspirable  matter  hardens  in  the  pores 
of  the  skin,  or  remains  lodged  at  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and 
has  the  appearance  of  a  dirty  white  dust,  and  sometimes 
like  small  scales,  attended  with  itching.  More  especially  is 
rubbing  necessary  for  horses  when  they  are  growing  cold 
after  being  sweated  by  labor.  In  such  cases  it  should  never 
be  omitted. 

Columella  observes,  "  that  the  bodies  of  cattle  ought  to  be 
rubbed  down  daily,  as  well  as  the  bodies  of  men  ";  and  says, 
"  it  often  does  them  more  good  to  have  their  backs  well  rub- 
bed down,  than  their  bellies  well  filled  with  provender." 

But  in  warm  weather  it  would  be  best  for  them,  that  they 
should  not  have  the  confinement  of  the  halter,  nor  even  of 
the  stable.  A  small  spot  of  feeding  ground,  if  it  were  only 
a  few  rods,  adjoining  to  the  stable,  and  the  door  left  open, 
that  a  horse  may  go  in  and  out  alternately  as  he  pleases, 
would  greatly  conduce  to  the  health  of  the  animal.  This 
degree  of  liberty  will  be  most  needful  when  the  flies  are 
troublesome ;  and  be  better  for  him  than  confinement  to  a 
20* 


234  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

stable  that  is  perfectly  dark.  In  fly  time,  it  gives  a  horse 
much  ease  and  comfort  to  smear  his  limbs,  neck,  and  head, 
with  rancid  fish  oil,  or  something  else  that  will  keep  the  flies 
from  attacking  him.  And  in  all  seasons,  when  horses  have 
been  heated  with  exercise,  they  should  be  well  rubbed  or 
curried. 

When  a  horse  runs  in  a  pasture  during  the  grass  season, 
he  should  have  some  shelter;  not  only  a  shade  to  defend  him 
from  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  but  a  shed,  or  a  clump  of 
trees,  that  he  may  retreat  from  the  inclemencies  of  the 
atmosphere. 

But  horses  that  are  daily  worked  in  summer  should  be 
mostly  kept  upon  green  fodder  in  stables,  rather  than  grazed 
in  pastures.  The  tendance  of  them  will  not  be  so  burden- 
some, with  a  spot  of  high  and  thick  grass  at  hand,  as  lead- 
ing them  to  and  from  a  pasture,  at  the  distance  of  a  quarter 
of  a  mile.  This  will  prevent  their  being  often  chilled  by 
feeding  in  wet  nights.  A  large  quantity  of  manure  will  thus 
be  saved.  And  a  very  small  quantity  of  land  will  answer, 
in  comparison  with  what  it  takes  for  the  pasturing  of  a 
horse.  Keeping  a  scythe  and  a  basket  at  hand,  a  horse 
may  be  foddered  in  this  way  in  two  or  three  minutes  ;  and 
by  the  time  that  the  whole  spot  has  been  once  mowed  over, 
that  which  is  first  cut  will  be  grown  up  again.  V/here  a 
number  of  horses  are  soiled,  a  pair  of  poles,  or  a  hand-cart, 
will  be  better  than  a  basket  to  carry  the  hay  to  them.  This 
practice,  called  soiling,  answers  well  near  cities  and  large 
towns,  where  lands  for  pasturage  are  not  plenty;  and  where, 
by  means  of  the  plenty  of  manure,  lands  may  be  made  to 
yield  the  greatest  crops  of  grass.  For  very  thick  grass 
should  not  be  fed  off" ;  because  the  greater  part  of  it  will  be 
Avasted  by  the  trampling  and  the  excrements  of  animals. 

When  grain  is  given  to  horses,  it  is  an  economical  practice 
to  have  it  either  ground  or  boiled.  When  horses  are  soiled, 
or  fed  in  a  stable  on  green  grass,  it  should  be  cut  and  car- 
ried in  during  the  morning  while  the  dew  is  on. 

A  disorder,  called  plyalism,  has  for  some  years  past  been 
gaining  ground  among  horses  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States,  which  is  an  excessive  watering  or  slavering  at  the 
mouth.  Various  causes  have  been  assigned  for  this  disorder, 
but  none  of  them  satisfactory.  Soiling  them  is,  however,  a 
certain  remedy. 

The  following  remarks  on  the  diseases  of  the  horse  were 
written  by  Dr.  J.   B.  Brown,  of  Boston,  and  were  first  pub- 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  235 

lished  in  "The  New  England  Journal  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery"  :  — 

"The  horse  is  not  subject  to  fever;  that  is,  he  has  no 
simple,  idiopathic  fever;  no  cold,  hot,  and  sweating  stage,  as 
man  has.  The  feverish  action  which  the  heart  and  arteries 
of  the  horse  sometimes  assume  is  sympathetic,  and  is  always 
preceded  by  some  local  affection.  It  is  a  disease  of  irrita- 
tion. 

"  The  eyes  of  the  horse  are  subject  to  a  species  of  catar- 
act that  affects  no  other  animal.  It  arises  from  a  constitu- 
tional disease,  brought  on  by  bad  stabling.  It  is  ne\ier 
produced  by  local  injury.  This  species  of  cataract  com- 
mences with  an  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva,  without  any 
apparent  cause.  Local  applications  have  no  effect  in  remov- 
ing it.  The  only  rational  method  of  treating  it  is  to  remove, 
if  possible,  the  constitutional  disease,  and  improve  the  health 
and  condition  of  the  animal. 

"  Oxen  and  cows  have  the  disease  called  bots  in  their  skin, 
but  in  the  horse  this  disease  (if  it  may  be  so  called)  is  con- 
fined to  the  stomach. 

"Farcy  and  glanders,  are  diseases  peculiar  to  the  horse. 
They  are  contagious  diseases,  but  may  be  produced  without 
contagion,  by  bad  stabling.  The  poisonous  matter  of  farcy 
will  produce  glanders,  and  vice  versa.  Farcy  is  now  as- 
certained to  be  a  disease  of  the  superficial  absorbents; 
whereas,  in  all  the  old  books  on  the  veterinary  art,  it  is  re- 
presented as  a  disease  of  the  veins. 

"A  horse  glandered  has  the  whole  mass  of  blood  con- 
taminated. This  may  be  considered  by  medical  gentlemen 
as  an  important  fact,  as  it  goes  to  prove  the  doctrine  of 
humoral  pathology.  That  the  whole  mass  of  blood  is  dis- 
eased, in  a  horse  affected  with  glanders,  has  been  proved  by 
the  following  experiment,  made  by  Mr.  Colman,  professor 
at  the  Veterinary  Institution,  England. 

"  He  took  a  young,  healthy  ass,  an  animal,  as  he  states, 
])eculiarly  susceptible  of  the  disease,  and  introduced  a  pipe 
having  a  stop-cock-  into  the  jugular  vein,  united  by  means 
of  an  ureter  to  another  pipe,  which  he  introduced  into  the 
carotid  artery  of  a  glandered  horse.  He  then  bled  the  ass 
to  death  by  opening  his  carotid  artery,  and  turning  the  stop- 
cock, admitted  the  blood  of  the  horse  into  his  vessels,  and 
resuscitated  him.  The  result  was,  that  the  ass  became 
violently  glandered.  He  inoculated  other  asses  from  the 
matter  produced  in  him,  and  v/as  able  to  carry  on  the  same 
diseai?e. 


236  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

"  Corns  in  the  feet  of  horses  are  very  unlike  corns  on  the 
feet  of  the  human  subject.  There  is  nothing  which  grows 
in  the  feet  of  horses  that  constitutes  corns.  There  is  no  in- 
crease of  substance.  Corns  in  the  feet  of  horses  are  mere 
bruises.  Every  body  has  seen  or  experienced  the  effects  of 
bruises  upon  the  human  nail.  Corns  in  the  feet  of  horses 
are  injuries  of  a  similar  nature.  The  red  appearance  which 
they  have  is  caused  by  an  extravasation  of  blood,  which 
spreads  itself  among  the  fibres  of  the  horny  hoof  Corns 
are  generally  occasioned  by  the  shoe.  They  may,  however, 
arise  from  other  injuries.  They  are  easily  cured  by  suitable 
remedies  and  a  proper  mode  of  shoeing,  unless  the  inflam- 
mation occasioned  by  the  injury  has  been  of  long  standing, 
and  assumed  a  chronic  character.  In  this  case,  the  cure  is 
more  tedious. 

"Horse-ail.  Strictly  speaking,  all  diseases  of  horses  are 
horse-ails  ;  but  custom  has  given  this  epithet  to  a  species  of 
disease  very  common  among  our  horses.  The  disease  refer- 
red to  is  called  strangles,  in  most  of  the  old  books  on  far- 
riery. It  consists  in  an  inflammation  of  the  membrane  lining 
the  nose  and  the  arytsenoid  cartilages.  This  disease  is  ac- 
companied by  a  cough  and  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  The 
cough  is  sympathetic,  and  is  produced  by  the  extreme  sensi- 
bility of  the  membrane  thus  inflamed.  The  lightest  dust,  or 
even  a  drop  of  water  lodged  upon  this  membrane,  in  this  ir- 
ritable state,  produces  coughing.  The  inflammation  some- 
times extends  to  the  lungs,  and  then  this  disease  is  accom- 
panied with  a  disease  of  the  chest,  and  requires  speedy  and 
energetic  treatment,  as  inflammation  of  the  lungs  in  the 
horse  is  apt  to  terminate  speedily  in  gangrene.  Copious 
bleeding,  from  six  to  ten  quarts  at  first,  and  smaller  bleed- 
ings afterwards,  as  the  state  of  the  case  may  require,  and 
small  doses  of  aloes,  from  one  to  two  drachms,  given  daily, 
have  been  found  the  most  successful  remedies  in  inflammation 
of  the  lungs.  Drastic  purgatives  should  be  avoided,  as  they 
increase  the  irritation  and  put  the  life  of  the  horse  in  extreme 
hazard  " 

The  following  judicious  remarks  on  the  management  and 
diseases  of  horses,  &c.,  are  taken  from  an  English  publi- 
cation. 

"  The  stable.  As  the  preservation  of  health  ought  to  be 
considered  as  an  object  of  equal,  if  not  superior,  importance 
to  that  of  curing  or  alleviating  disease,  and  as  it  can  only 
be  accomplished  by  a  proper  management  of  the  horse  with 


AND  RURAL  KCOXOMLST.  237 

respect  to  feeding,  exercise,  and  the  general  economy  of  the 
stable,  I  think  it  proper  to  begin  with  this  subject. 

"  In  the  construction  of  a  stable  there  is,  perhaps,  no  cir- 
cumstance more  deserving  attention  than  that  of  ventilation, 
or  of  having  contrivances  for  the  ready  admission  of  fresh 
air,  and  for  the  escape  of  that  which  has  been  rendered  im- 
pure by  breathing  ;  and  it  is  really  extraordinary  that  so 
little  attention  should  have  been  paid  to  so  important  a  cir- 
cumstance. Grooms  in  general  make  a  point  of  closing  eve- 
ry aperture  they  can  find  ;  and  if,  at  any  time,  they  are  pre- 
vailed upon  to  open  a  window,  it  is  commonly  so  small,  and 
so  inconveniently  situated,  as  to  be  of  but  little  service. 
Let  any  one  for  a  moment  consider  how  foul  an  atmosphere 
must  be  produced  in  a  close  stable,  in  which  several  horses 
are  kept,  by  the  constant  exhalation  of  unwholesome  vapors 
from  the  litter,  by  the  steams  of  perspiration  from  the  skin, 
and  by  noxious  airs  from  the  lungs,  and  he  will  not  be  sur- 
prised at  the  long  catalogue  of  diseases  to  which  this  im- 
proper treatment  must  subject  these  useful  animals. 

"  If  a  doubt  remain  in  the  mind  of  any  one  as  to  the  impro- 
priety of  such  close  stables,  let  him  enter  one  early  in  the 
morning,  on  its  being  first  opened,  and  he  will  experience 
such  a  painful  sensation  in  the  eyes,  and  so  violent  a  cough, 
as  will  afford  him  the  most  convincing  proof  of  the  noxious 
and  stimulating  nature  of  such  an  atmosphere  ;  yet  such  is 
the  obstinacy  and  ignorance  of  grooms  in  general,  that  they 
cannot  be  prevailed  upon  to  abandon  this  injurious  practice. 
Even  at  this  time  stables  are  generally  built  too  low,  and 
unprovided  with  effectual  means  of  ventilation. 

"A  stable  should  be  as  lofl;y  as  it  can  be  made  convenient- 
ly, at  least  twelve  feet ;  the  foul  air  will  then  circulate  in 
the  higher  parts,  and  the  animal  will  not  be  constantly  breath- 
ing an  unwholesome  atmosphere,  which  he  must  do  when 
the  ceiling  is  scarcely  higher  than  his  head.  Proper  aper- 
tures must  also  be  made  in  the  ceiling,  communicatino-  with 
the  atmosphere  by  square  wooden  tubes,  so  contrived  as 
not  to  admit  the  rain  into  stables  ;  the  foul  air  and  other 
unwholesome  vapors  will  then  readily  pass  off,  while  a  proper 
quantity  of  fresh  air  may  be  admitted  by  means  of  win- 
dows. The  next  circumstance  to  be  attended  to  is  nearly 
connected  with,  and  not  less  important  than  ventilation  ; 
namely,  the  so  constructing  a  stable  as  to  be  able  to  regulate 
its  temperature,  or  keep  the  air  at  any  degree  of  heat  that 
may  be  thought  proper.     It  is  generally  allowed,  that  a  uni- 


233  THE   COMPLETE  FAKMER 

form  temperature  in  a  stable  is  very  desirable  ;  and  it  is 
certain,  that  many  of  the  diseases  of  horses  are  caused  by 
sudden  changes  in  this  respect.  Even  slight  variations  of 
temperature,  if  frequent,  are  injurious  ;  yet  few  stables  are 
to  be  found  where  this  inconvenience  is  effectually  guarded 
against.  To  accomplish  this  desirable  purpose,  the  win- 
dows should  be  in  diiferent  sides,  so  that  when  a  cold  wind 
blows  from  any  point  it  may  be  shut  out,  while  fresh  air  is 
admitted  by  the  opposite  window.  There  should  be  several 
of  the  apertures  we  have  described  in  the  ceiling,  that  they 
may  be  occasionally  shut,  either  wholly  or  partially,  so  that, 
by  means  of  these  and  the  windows,  the  temperature  can  at 
anv  season  be  easily  regulated,  according  to  the  weather  or 
state  of  the  horse's  health,  more  accurately  if  a  thermometer 
be  kept  ;  an  instrument  which  appears  to  be  a  necessary 
appendage  to  a  well-conducted  stable.  If,  during  the  cold 
days  of  winter,  the  contrivance  we  have  proposed  should  be 
found  insufficient  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  stable  to 
the  desired  point,  the  air  may  be  easily  warmed  to  any  degree 
by  means  of  stoves  placed  on  the  outside,  with  iron  chimneys 
passing  through  the  stable.  It  may  be  placed  in  the  saddle- 
room;   this,  however,  is  scarcely  necessary. 

"  Light  is  also  a  thing  of  much  importance  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  stable  ;  and,  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  it 
readily  to  every  part,  the  windows  should  be  large  and  prop- 
erly placed.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  eyes  of  horses  are 
often  injured  by  dark  stables  ;  and  when  a  horse  is  just  taken 
from  a  dark  situation,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  light  at  first 
irritates  the  eye  and  gives  pain  ;  and  this  is  more  remark- 
able when  he  is  brought  suddenly  into  the  sunshine  ;  nor  is 
it  to  be  wondered  at,  that  so  delicate  an  organ  as  the  eye 
should  suffer  materially  from  the  frequent  repetition  of  this 
sudden  change. 

"  Though  a  light  stable  is  desirable,  the  sunshine  should 
not  be  allowed  to  tall  on  the  eyes  of  a  horse  as  he  stands  in 
his  stall  ;  nor  should  the  walls  or  ceiling  be  of  a  white  color, 
as,  under  such  circumstances,  the  eyes  would  be  over  stimu- 
lated and  rendered  weak.  And  when  it  is  considered  how  lia- 
ble horses  are  to  diseases  of  these  organs,  and  how  frequent- 
ly they  terminate  in  blindness,  no  one  will  think  any  circum- 
stance tending  to  their  preservation  too  trifling  to  be  noticed. 
With  regard  to  the  best  color  for  the  walls  and  ceiling,  a 
stone  or  dove  color  is  perhaps  to  be  preferred,  and  may  be 
made  by  mixing  a  little  lampblack,  ivory-black,  or  blue-black 
with  the  common  white-wash. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  239 

"  The  door  should  be  larger  and  higher  than  we  usually 
see  it  ;  for  horses  are  very  liable,  in  passing  through  a  nar- 
row or  low  one,  to  strike  their  hips  or  heads. 

"  The  stalls  should  not  be  less  than  six  feet  wide,  and  the 
sides  sufficiently  high  to  prevent  any  sort  of  contact  or  com- 
munication between  the   horses.     They  should   also   be   of 
considerable  depth,  that  a  horse  may  not,  by  drawing  back, 
have    the    power   of  kicking   those   in  the   adjoining   stalls. 
The  floor  of  the  stall   should    be   made   of  hard   brick,  as  a 
more  equal  surface  is  then  formed  than  can  be  obtained    by 
paving  with  pebbles.     Very  little   declivity  is   necessary  to 
drain  off  the  urine;   and  as  great  inconvenience  sometimes 
arises  from  suffering   a  horse  to  stand   in    a  stall  where  the 
fall  is  considerable,    creating  unnecessary   exertion   in  the 
muscles  of  the  hind  leg,  and  keeping  the  ligaments  constant- 
ly in  a  tense   state,  it  has  been  recommended  to   make  the 
drain  in  the  middle  of  the  stall,  whereby  the    hind   and  fore 
feet  of  the  horse  might  stand  on  a  level.      In  whatever  way, 
however,  the  stall  is   made,  it   should   be  carefully  cleaned, 
twice  a  day,  that  none  of  that  putrescent  matter  may  accu- 
mulate   which    generates  ammonia,   or  that   pungent   vapor 
which  is  so  abundantly  found  in  close,  filthy  stables.       An 
iron  rack  is  preferable  to   one  of  wood,  being   more   easily 
kept  clean,  and  furnishing  no  splinters  ;  which,  where  wood- 
en racks  are  used,  sometimes  injure  the  mouth.     The  man- 
ger may  be  so  contrived  as    to    slide  into  the   wall   like  a 
drawer;  and  then,  while  the  groom  is  wisping  him,  he  would 
have  nothing  to  lay  hold  of  with  his   mouth,  by  which    prac- 
tice horses  often  become  crib-biters.     The  height  both  of  the 
rack  and  manger  should  be  such  as  to  enable  the   horse  to 
feed  with  the  greatest  ease.     The  former  is  sometimes  made 
so  high  that  the  horse  is  obliged  to  exert  the  muscles  of  his 
neck  considerably  in  order  to  reach  it ;  and  this  has  been  so 
placed,  under  an  idea  of  its  having  a  tendency  to  make  him 
carry  his  head   more  gracefully;   it  is  more  probable,  how- 
ever, that  the  only  effect  of  it  is  to  make  the   horse    uncom- 
fortable while   feeding.     It   has  been  recommended,  as  the 
best  plan,  to  place  the  racks  on  a  level  with  the  manger,  so 
that  the   horse   may  feed   as   he   does  in   a  state   of  nature. 
This  plan  is  a  good  one .       It  has  been  tried  both  for  wagon 
and  saddle  horses,  that  is,  both  single  and  double,  and  found 
to  answer  extremely  well.     It  was   observed,   however,  that 
some  horses  would  throw  out  part  of  the  hay  with  their  noses 
when  it  was  of  a  bad  quality;   but  by  placing  one  or  more 


240  THE  COMPLETE  FARMER 

bars  across  on  the  upper  part,  from  the  front  to  the  back, 
this  was  effectually  prevented.  The  manger  should  be  rath- 
er wide,  and  not  less  than  eighteen  inches  deep.  When  a 
horse  is  fed  principally  with  chaff  or  cut  hay,  a  deep  manger 
is  particularly  necessary,  as  many  horses,  in  endeavouring  to 
pick  out  the  oats  from  the  chaff,  will  throw  out  a  great  deal 
of  the  food  with  their  noses  when  the  manger  is  shallow.  In 
larger  stables,  where  many  horses  are  kept,  each  stall  is  to 
contain  two  horses,  which  will  require  a  space  of  twelve 
feet.  A  manger  is  placed  at  each  end,  and  the  hay  crib  in 
the  centre.  A  very  short  halter  is  sufficient  to  allow  the 
horses  to  lie  down,  and  then  there  is  no  danger  of  entangling 
themselves  with  it,  an  accident  that  often  occurs  when  long 
halters  are  used.  La  Fosse,  in  his  Manuel  d'Hippiatrique, 
says,  that  the  fall  in  the  floor  of  the  stall  should  not  be  more 
than  one  inch  to  two  yards.  The  gutter  behind  the  stall  is 
commonly  too  deep,  and  often  so  placed  as  to  be  in  the  way 
of  the  horses'  hind  feet.  When  a  stable  is  properly  attend- 
ed to,  scarcely  any  gutter  is  required  ;  and  when  there  is 
one,  it  should  be  very  shallow  and  wide. 

"  When  a  stable  is  ventilated  by  means  of  a  tube  or  chim- 
ney, it  should  be  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  ceiling,  the 
opening  in  which  should  be  large,  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  horses  kept  ;  it  cannot  well  be  too  large,  but  may  be 
contracted  upwards,  so  as  to  have  a  conical  shape,  or  it  may 
be  made  so  as  to  resemble  a  dome  or  cupola.  It  should  be 
carried  a  few  feet  above  the  top  of  the  roof,  and  have  lateral 
openings,  by  means  of  slanting  boards,  but  closed  on  the  top; 
by  which  contrivance  there  would  be  a  free  communication 
with  the  atmosphere,  and  the  rain  would  be  effectually  ex- 
cluded. 

"There  have  been  different  opinions  held  with  respect  to 
the  removal  of  the  litter  during  the  day  ;  but  when  we  con- 
sider how  rapidly  and  abundantly  ammonia  or  the  volatile 
alkali  is  generated  in  it,  and  how  injurious  that  vapor  is  to 
the  eyes  and  lungs,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  propriety 
of  removing  it.  Dr.  Egan,  of  Dublin,  has  discovered,  that 
the  urine  of  the  horse  begins  to  generate  volatile  alkali  very 
soon  after  it  is  voided  ;  and  it  is  well  observed  by  the  same 
author,  that  if  this  vapor  be  capable  of  painfully  stimulating 
a  sound  and  healthy  eye,  its  eflects  upon  one  that  is  inflam- 
ed, and  consequently  extremely  irritable,  must  be  both  highly 
painful  and  prejudicial  to  the  organ.  In  confirmation  of  this 
opinion,  the  author  relates  the  following  experiment.  A  horse 


AND  RURAL   ECONOxMIST.  241 

laboring  under  inflammation  of  the  eye  was  removed  from 
the  stable,  where  he  kept  both  eyes  constantly  shut,  and 
placed  in  a  cool,  airy  situation;  in  the  space  of  half  an  hour 
he  began  gradually  to  open  his  eyes,  and  in  the  space  of  two 
or  three  hours  he  kept  them  open  boldly.  The  horse  was 
again  placed  in  the  stable,  and  in  a  few  minutes  he  began 
gradually  to  close  the  eyes,  and  after  an  hour  or  two  kept 
them  constantly  shut.  Not  satisfied,  however,  with  this  ex- 
periment, though  it  seems  pretty  conclusive,  the  horse  was 
again  removed  to  the  cool  situation,  and  the  same  effect  fol- 
lowed as  at  first.  If  the  vapors  produced  by  foul  litter  prove 
so  injurious  to  the  eyes,  it  cannot  surely  be  less  prejudicial 
to  the  lungs  ;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  if  coughs  are  not 
produced  in  this  way,  they  are  often  aggravated  and  render- 
ed incurable  by  those  irritating  effluvia.  Another  evil  to  be 
considered  is  the  propensity  observable  in  many  horses  to 
eat  their  litter.  This  is  often  the  case  with  such  as  have  a 
chronic  cough,  or  are  disposed  to  become  brokenwinded,  or 
have  worms  ;  and  in  all  these  diseases  there  is  nothing, 
perhaps,  more  likely  to  increase  them  than  the  animal's  eat- 
ing foul  litter.  It  must  be  obvious,  that  horses  employed  in 
severe  labor  should  be  allowed  to  lie  down  whenever  they 
are  inclined  to  do  so  ;  but  even  then  all  the  litter  may  be 
turned  out  early  in  the  morning,  the  floor  of  the  stall  swept 
perfectly  clean,  and  a  bed  of  fresh  straw  put  in.  If  the  foul 
litter  be  spread  abroad  in  the  open  air,  and  shaken  up  two 
or  three  times  during  the  day,  the  greater  part  would  be 
again  fit  for  litter,  and,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  fresh 
straw,  would  serve  to  replace  that  upon  which  the  horse  has 
rested  during  the  day.  It  has  been  said,  that  horses  which 
stand  constantly  on  litter  are  apt  to  feel  the  difference  of  the 
road  and  become  tender-footed.  Mr.  Clark  observes,  that 
the  heat  arising  from  the  litter  occasions  a  more  than  ordi- 
nary derivation  of  blood  to  the  legs  and  feet  ;  and  hence 
arise  swelling  or  gourdiness  of  those  parts,  greasy  heels, 
and  stiffness  or  numbness.  If  the  horse  lies  down  for  relief, 
the  heat  of  the  litter  soon  forces  him  to  get  up  again,  and 
after  repeatedly  lying  down,  and  forced  to  get  up  immediate- 
ly from  the  above  cause,  he  attempts  it  no  farther;  he  stands 
upright,  or  perhaps  a  little  straddling,  often  shifting  the 
weight  of  his  body  from  one  leg  to  the  other.  This  erect 
position,  in  which  he  is  obliged  to  stand,  increases  the  swel- 
ling of  his  legs,  Stc,  and  recourse  is  then  had  to  bleeding, 
purging,  diuretics,  &.c. 
21 


242  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

"  Lord  Pembroke,  in  his  '  Military  Equitation,'  observes 
that  after  working,  and  at  night  of  course,  as  also  in  lame- 
ness and  sickness,  it  is  good  for  horses  to  stand  on  litter  ;  it 
also  produces  staling,  &c.  At  other  times,  it  is  a  bad  cus- 
tom ;  the  constant  use  of  it  heats  and  makes  the  feet  tender, 
and  causes  swelled  legs  ;  moreover,  it  renders  the  animal 
delicate. 

"  Swelled  legs  may  be  often  reduced  to  their  natural  size 
merely  by  taking  away  the  litter,  which,  in  some  stables, 
where  ignorant  grooms  and  farriers  govern,  would  be  a  great 
saving  of  physic  and  bleeding,  besides  straw. 

"  Lord  Pembroke  has  noticed,  by  repeated  experiments, 
that  legs  swell  or  unswell,  by  leaving  litter  or  taking  it  away, 
like  mercury  in  a  weather-glass.  Mr.  Blaine  is  of  opinion, 
that  the  custom  of  standing  on  litter  ruins  more  horses  than 
all  the  mails  or  stagecoaches  put  together  ;  that  it  is  the 
fruitful  source  of  contracted  feet,  and  brings  on  that  ruinous 
affection  with  more  certainty  than  the  hardest  work.  In  my 
own  stables  (he  says)  no  litter  is  ever  suffered  to  remain 
under  the  fore-feet  during  the  day.  The  horses  stand  on  bare 
bricks,  which,  in  summer,  are  watered  to  make  them  more 
cool  ;  by  which  means  I  have  experienced  astonishing  bene- 
fit. Behind,  a  little  litter  is  strewed,  because  they  are  apt 
to  kick  and  break  the  bricks  with  their  hind  feet  ;  and  be- 
cause the  litter  thus  placed  sucks  up  the  moisture  of  the 
urine,  which  would  be  detrimental  to  the  iiinder  feet,  which 
are  more  liable  to  thrushes  than  contraction." 

Colls.  "  Colts  are  usually  foaled  about  the  beginning  of 
summer,  and  it  is  the  custom  to  let  them  run  till  Michaelmas 
with  the  mare,  at  which  time  they  are  to  be  weaned.  When 
first  weaned,  they  must  be  kept  in  a  convenient  house,  with 
a  low  rack  and  n)anger  for  hay  and  oats  ;  the  hay  must  be 
very  sweet  and  fine,  especially  at  first,  and  a  little  wheat 
bran  should  be  mixed  with  their  oats,  in  order  to  keep  their 
bodies  open,  and  make  them  eat  and  drink  freely.  When 
the  winter  is  spent,  they  should  be  turned  into  some  dry 
ground,  where  the  grass  is  sweet  and  short,  and  where  there 
is  good  water,  that  they  may  drink  at  pleasure.  The  win- 
ter after  this,  they  may  be  kept  in  the  stable,  without  any 
farther  care  than  that  which  is  taken  of  other  horses.  But 
after  the  first  year,  the  mare  foals  and  horse  foals  are  not  to 
be  kept  together.  There  is  no  difficulty  to  know  the  shape 
a  foal  is  like  to  be  of,  for  the  same  shape  he  carries  at  a 
month  he  will  carry  at  six  years  old,  if  he  be  not  abused  in 
after  keeping." 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  243 

"  We  often  hear  it  lamented,  that  our  breed  of  horses  is 
bad.  But  I  am  convinced  that,  as  our  colts  are  managed,  if 
we  had  any  other  breed,  we  should  soon  make  it  appear  to 
be  as  mean  as  our  own,  if  not  worse.  The  abusing  of  colts 
in  the  first  winter  is  the  principal  cause  of  their  proving  so 
bad  ;  for  our  farmers  seldom  allow  their  weaned  colts  any 
food  besides  hay,  and  that  is  not  always  of  the  best  kind. 
So  that  they  seldom  fail  of  being  stinted  in  their  growth,  in 
the  first  winter,  to  such  a  degree,  that  they  never  get  the 
better  of  it.  A  colt  that  is  foaled  late  should  not  be  weaned 
till  February  or  March,  and  should  have  oats  during  the 
whole  of  the  winter.  In  some  countries,  they  allow  a  young 
colt  fifteen  bushels.  We  need  not  grudge  to  feed  them  with 
meal,  oats,  and  bran,  besides  the  best  of  clover  hay;  for  they 
will  pay  for  it  in  their  growth.  After  the  first  winter,  they 
will  need  no  extraordinary  feeding  till  they  are  grown  up. 
Were  the  above  directions  observed,  we  should  soon  see  an 
improvement  of  our  breed  of  horses.  They  would  be  capa- 
ble of  doing  much  greater  service,  and  be  likely  to  hold  out 
to  a  greater  ajje." —  Deane. 

For  farther  remarks  on  the  management  of  colts,  and 
training  or  breaking  them  for  service,  see  page  64  of  this 
work. 


MANGE L-WURTZEL.  Field  Culture  of  the  Mangel- 
wurtzel  Beet  and  the  Sugar  Beet.  Soil  and  Preparation. 
The  soil  for  these  roots  should  be  a  loam,  inclining  to  clay, 
in  good  tilth,  well  manured,  and  made  fine  to  a  good  depth. 
John  HarePowel,  Esq.,  corresponding  secretary  to  the  Penn- 
sylvania Agricultural  Society,  in  giving  an  account  of  his 
mode  of  cultivating  this  crop,  says,  "My  soil  was  not  natu- 
rally strong;  it  has  been  gradually  so  much  deepened  as  to 
enable  Wood's  plough,  No.  2,  drawn  by  four  oxen,  to  plough 
fourteen  inches  deep.  Fresh  barn-yard  manure  was  equally 
spread  upon  the  surface,  and  ploughed  under  in  the  early 
part  of  April,  in  quantities  not  larger  than  are  generally  used 
for  potato  crops  in  this  country.  Early  in  May,  the  land 
was  twice  stirred  with  Beatson's  scarifier,  harrowed,  rolled  ; 
after  stirred,  harrowed  and  rolled  again  in  the  opposite 
direction."  The  soil,  on  which  Messrs.  Tristram  Little  and 
Henry  Little,  of  Newbury,  Massachusetts,  raised  their 
premium  crop,  in  1824,  is  a  clay  loam.  In  1823,  about  three- 


244  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

fourths  of  the  same  was  sowed  with  onions,  and  manured 
with  about  eight  cords  of  compost  manure  to  the  acre.  The 
other  quarter  was  sowed  with  wheat  without  manure.  In 
the  fall  of  1823,  there  were  about  ten  cords  of  compost  ma- 
nure drawn  on  the  lot,  and  put  in  a  heap.  Most  of  the  said 
compost  was  drawn  from  the  salt  marshes,  when  ditching 
the  same  ;  the  other  part  was  from  the  barn-yard.  In  the 
month  of  April,  1824,  the  heap  was  thrown  over,  and  well 
mixed. 

Planting.  Colonel  Powel  says,  "  The  holes  for  the  seeds 
were  made  by  a  wheel,  containing  pegs  in  its  circumference, 
which  penetrated  the  ground  about  an  inch,  leaving  intervals 
of  four  inches  ;  the  rows  were  made  two  feet  asunder  ;  two 
capsules  were  dropped  into  each  hole  ;  the  wheel  of  a  com- 
mon barrow  was  passed  over  them,  thus  compressing  the 
earth,  and  leaving  a  slight  rut  for  the  retention  of  moisture." 

Messrs.  Tristram  and  Henry  Little  observe,  that,  "  Be- 
tween the  8th  and  1 1th  of  May,  the  land  was  ploughed  and 
sowed  in  the  following  manner.  After  one  deep  ploughing, 
the  ground  was  furrowed  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  the 
manure  put  into  the  furrows,  and  covered  with  a  double 
mould-board  plough  ;  a  roller  was  then  passed  on  the  top  of 
the  ridge,  and  the  seed  dibbled  in  with  the  finger  over  the 
manure,  about  six  or  eight  inches  apart."  The  quantity  of 
seed,  according  to  English  writers,  is  four  pounds  to  an  acre. 
Mr.  David  Little,  in  obtaining  a  premium  crop,  sowed  four 
pounds,  but  observed,  that  he  thought  half  that  quantity 
would  have  been  sufficient. 

After-culture.  Colonel  Powel  says,  "A  small  cultivator, 
which  I  had  contrived  for  the  purpose,  was  drawn  between 
the  rows  soon  after  the  weeds  appeared  ;  a  three  inch  trian- 
gular hoe  removed  the  alternate  plants,  leaving  the  others 
at  distances  varying  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  asunder. 
The  cultivator  was  twice  used  before  the  20th  of  July.  The 
heavy  rains  of  August  made  another  hoeing  necessary,  and 
surcharged  the  ground  so  much  with  moisture,  that  all  roots 
increased  much  less  in  that  month  than  during  the  same 
time  in  the  two  last  years."  The  Messrs.  Little,  "  in  the 
course  of  the  season,  thinned  their  plants,  and  left  them 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  They  were 
once  hoed,  and  ploughed  three  times  between  the  rows." 
Mr.  Powel,  in  raising  a  previous  crop,  had  placed  the  rows 
thirty  inches  apart,  and  left  the  plants  six  inches  apart  in  the 
rows.     He  says,  "  I  this  year  desired  smaller  roots,  which 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  245 

might  grow  so  closely  as  by  their  leaves  to  protect  the  soil 
as  much  as  possible  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  My  cultiva- 
tor, by  its  peculiar  form,  enabled  me  to  cut  off  the  weeds 
when  the  plants  were  so  young,  that,  if  I  had  applied  the 
plough,  their  crowns  must  have  been  covered  in  many  in- 
stances by  earth  occasionally  falling  from  its  land  side.  The 
failure,  which  attends  the  cultivation  of  most  root  crops  in 
drills,  proceeds  from  the  neglect  of  weeds  in  their  early  sta- 
ges. Four  or  five  days  of  delay  frequently  make  the  differ- 
ence of  fifteen  days  in  the  labor  of  making  clean  an  acre  ot 
ground.  The  same  weeds  which  a  boy  with  a  sharp  shingle 
could  remove  at  the  commencement  of  one  week,  may,  before 
the  end  of  the  next,  require  the  application  of  an  implement 
drawn  by  a  horse.  I  ascribe  my  success,  in  great  measure, 
to  the  use  of  Wood's  exlraordmary  plough,  which  enters  the 
soil  more  deeply,  and  pulverizes  it  more  perfectly,  than  any 
other  I  have  ever  seen,  with  equal  force,  in  any  country  ;  to 
the  use  of  cultivators,  which  complete  the  production  of  fine 
tilth  ;  to  the  destruction  of  the  weeds  on  their  first  appear- 
ance, —  leaving  the  smallest  space  upon  which  a  horse  can 
walk  between  the  rows  ;  and,  above  all,  to  planting  the  seeds 
of  a  proper  kind  upon  a  surface  which  is  kept  perfectly  flat." 

General  Remarks.  Agriculturists  have  not  agreed,  wheth- 
er it  is  most  expedient  to  plant  the  seeds  of  this  root  on 
ridges  or  on  a  level.  Colonel  Powel  condemns  planting  on 
ridges  in  this  country,  as  a  practice  not  adapted  to  our  soil 
and  climate,  in  which  vegetables  are  very  liable  to  suffer  by 
drought.  He  says,  "Among  the  various  practices  into 
which  we  have  been  seduced  by  the  plausible  theories  of  the 
advocates  of  European  husbandry,  there  is  none  which  ap- 
pears to  me  more  absurd  than  that  which  has  led  us  to  drill 
or  dibble  our  crops  on  ridges.  The  English  farmer  wisely 
contends  with  the  evils  produced  by  too  much  rain  ;  the 
American  husbandman  should  as  anxiously  guard  against 
his  most  formidable  enemy,  drought.  I  am  inclined  tolhink 
that  there  is  no  crop  cultivated  in  this  State  (Pennsylvania) 
which  ought  not  to  be  put  on  a  flat  surface."  The  climate 
of  New  England,  especially  its  northern  part,  is  not  so  warm 
and  dry  as  that  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  that  part  of  the 
United  States,  perhaps,  the  nature  of  the  soil  should  decide 
the  question  ;  if  dry,  level  planting,  or  if  moist,  ridge  plant- 
ing should  be  adopted. 

We  have  heard  complaints  from  American   farmers,  that 
the  seed  of  this  root  is  slow  and   uncertain   in  coming   up 
21*  ^      * 


246  THE  COMPLETE   FARMER 

Perhaps  the  seed,  or  soil,  or  both,  may  sometimes  be  too  dry 
at  the  time  of  sowing.  A  writer  in  the  "  EngHsh  Farmer's 
Journal,"  says,  "  I  have  of  late  years  steeped  my  seed  for  at 
least  forty-eight  hours.  I  made  an  experiment  with  twenty 
sound  seeds,  not  steeped,  twenty  steeped  twenty-four  hours, 
and  the  same  number  steeped  forty-eight  hours  ;  every  seed 
of  the  latter  produced  plants,  which  came  up  two  or  three 
days  sooner  than  either  of  the  others,  and  some  of  those  not 
steeped  did  not  come  up  at  all."  INIr.  Cobbett,  in  treating 
of  the  culture  of  the  common  garden  beets,  (American  Gar- 
dener, par.  198,)  directs  to  soak  the  seed  four  days  and 
nights  in  rain-water  before  it  is  sowed;  and  observes,  that 
the  mangel-wurtzel  should  be  cultivated  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  other  kinds  of  beets.  American  writers,  so  far  as  we 
have  observed,  give  no  directions  for  soaking  the  seeds  of 
this  vegetable  before  planting  ;  and  it  is  possible,  that  the 
omission  of  this  part  of  the  process  may  cause  the  slowness 
and  uncertainty  of  vegetation  complained  of  The  capsule, 
or  husk,  which  contains  the  seeds,  is  dry,  and  it  requires  a 
long  time  for  the  moisture  which  it  may  derive  from  the 
earth  to  penetrate  this  integument,  so  as  to  cause  the  seed 
to  sprout.  But  if  the  soil  be  very  moist  at  the  time  of  sow- 
ing, soaking  the  seed  had  better  be  omitted. 

Much  has  been  written  and  said  on  the  subject  of  strip- 
ping these  plants  of  their  leaves  for  feeding  cows  and  other 
economical  purposes.  An  English  writer  observes,  that  six 
or  seven  crops  of  leaves  and  stocks  may  be  taken  off  during 
the  growth  of  the  root.  Women  and  children  can  take  off 
the  leaves,  which  is  done  as  follows  ;  they  should  place  their 
hands  on  each  side  of  the  root,  at  the  foot  stalks  of  the 
leaves,  leaving  about  six  of  the  smallest  central  leaves  be- 
tween the  fore-finger  and  thumb  of  each  hand  ;  (the  small 
leaves  are  to  be  left  on  the  root  to  grow,  to  make  a  fresh  top ; ) 
then,  spreading  the  hand  flat  with  their  face  downwards, 
push  them  both  at  the  same  time  towards  the  ground,  and  thus, 
by  one  motion,  will  the  whole  of  the  top  of  each  root,  ex- 
cept the  small  leaves  to  be  left  to  form  a  fresh  head,  be  re- 
moved without  unsettling  the  root  or  its  fibres,  which  would 
check  its  growth.  Some  affirm,  that  stripping  the  plant  of 
its  leaves  is  no  injury  to  the  root,  and  others  are  of  opinion 
that  the  root  is  injured  by  this  means.  We  have  doubts, 
whether,  in  field  cultivation,  it  will  often  be  deemed  expe- 
dient to  expend  time  and  labor  in  this  manner.  The  thin- 
nings, or  superfluous  plant?;,  however,  should  be  preserved, 
as  thev  make  excellent  food  for  milch  cows  or  store  sv.ine. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  247 

Some  cultivators  affirm,  that  it  is  never  worth  the  trouble 
to  transplant  these  roots  to  fill  vacancies.  "  I  have  seen," 
says  an  English  writer,  "  much  labor  and  expense  employed 
in  transplanting  into  vacant  spots, when  the  seed  has  not  been 
dibbled  thick  enough,  but  have  never  seen  the  transplanted 
roots  worth  half  the  trouble  ;  the  tap-root  being  broken  in 
the  drawing,  nothing  but  the  top  and  useless  rough  roots  and 
fangs  are  produced.  It  has  been  remarked  by  other  writers, 
that  the  most  common  cause  of  failure  in  transplanting  this 
root  is  the  taking  them  up  when  too  small,  before  the  plants 
have  obtained  strength  and  size  sufficient  to  bear  the  opera- 
tion of  transplanting. 

Use.  The  following  remarks  are  from  a  paper  communi- 
cated to  the  trustees  of  the  "Massachusetts  Agricultural  So- 
ciety," by  J.  Lowell,  Esq.,  president  of  said  Society.  They 
are  derived,  principally,  from  a  French  publication,  by  the 
Abbe  Rosier. 

"This  root  is  very  little  affected  by  changes  of  weather. 
It  is  attacked  by  no  insect  ;  drought  affects  but  little  its 
vegetation.  It  prepares  the  land  extremely  well  for  other 
crops.  It  may  be  sown  and  treated  precisely  like  the  com- 
mon beet,  except  that  it  ought  to  stand  eighteen  inches 
asunder.  In  good  land,  they  often  weigh  nine  or  ten  pounds, 
and  are  stripped  eight  or  nine  times.  In  a  light,  sandy,  but 
well  manured  soil,  they  sometimes  weigh  fourteen  and  even 
sixteen  pounds  each  !  The  first  crop  of  leaves  in  France 
is  taken  off  in  the  latter  end  of  June,  or  the  beginning  of 
July.  In  this  country,  probably,  the  latter  period  would  be 
preferable.  The  lower  leaves,  those  which  incline  towards 
the  ground,  ^re  those  which  are  taken  away,  and  care  must 
be  taken  to  preserve  the  top  leaves,  or  the  crown  of  the 
plants.  The  leaves  may  be  taken  off  every  fifteen  days 
after  the  first  gathering.  O.xen,  cows,  and  sheep  devour 
them  greedily,  and  fatten  readily  upon  them.  All  domestic 
poultry  eat  them  readily,  when  chopped  fine  and  mixed  with 
grain.  Horses  will  feed  upon  them  very  well,  mixed  with 
chopped  straw.     Hogs  also  fatten  upon  them. 

"  Cows  fed  upon  this  root  solely  give  a  greater  quantity 
oT  milk  and  cream,  and  of  better  quality  for  the  first  fifteen 
days,  after  which  they  grow  too  fat,  and  the  milk  lessens. 
The  food  of  cows  must  therefore  be  varied.  Oxen  and  sheep 
fatten  very  well  upon  them.  Cows  should  have  grass  in 
proportion  of  one-third  to  the  beet  leaves,  or  every  third  day 
they  should  be  turned  to  grass.     In  this  mode  their  milk 


248  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

will  be  excellent.  The  trouble  of  gathering  the  leaves  is  less 
than  that  of  gathering  any  other  green  fodder.  It  may  be 
done  by  children,  while  men  are  required  to  cut  other  green 
food  for  cattle.  It  is  the  surest  crop,  since  the  plant  will 
stand  the  longest  droughts.  The  roots  are  gathered  and 
treated  like  those  of  the  common  beet.  The  skin  is  very 
tender,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  handle  them  so  as  they 
may  not  be  wounded,  as  they  will,  in  that  case,  not  keep  so 
well.  In  order  to  preserve  the  seed  in  purity,  care  must  be 
taken  to  change  the  ground  in  which  the  seed  beets  are 
planted.  The  seed  can  be  preserved,  after  it  is  gathered, 
three  or  four  years,  without  injury.  In  giving  these  roots 
to  cattle  for  food,  they  are  first  washed,  and  then  cut  up  into 
pieces  about  the  size  of  a  nut.  It  is  always  best  to  accom- 
pany them,  when  given  to  horned  cattle,  with  clover,  or  oth- 
er hay  or  straw  ;  and  if  the  hay  or  straw  has  been  previously 
cut  fine,  it  will  be  preferable.  If  horses  are  fed  with  this 
root,  with  a  proportion  of  hay  or  cut  straw,  (half  of  each,) 
they  will  be  fat,  vigorous,  and  healthy.  If  they  are  worked 
severely,  a  little  oats  or  corn  may  be  added.  It  is  thus  they 
are  treated  in  Germany,  where  this  root  stands  in  the  stead 
of  meadows  or  grass  lands,  and  whose  excellent  horses  are 
well  known. 

"Hogs  fed  upon  them  raw,  after  they  have  been  cut  up 
fine  and  mixed  with  milk  or  other  drink,  fatten  as  well  upon 
them  as  upon  boiled  potatoes,  by  which  the  fuel  and  trouble 
of  boiling  is  saved. 

"  As  to  the  quantity  given  to  animals,  much  will  depend 
on  the  proportion  of  other  fodder  which  you  allow  them. 
Cows  fed  twice  a  day  in  winter  upon  eighteen  pounds  of 
these  roots  at  each  time,  together  with  four  pounds  of  hay  or 
chopped  straw,  will  give  as  much  and  as  good  milk  as  in 
summer,  and  they  will  be  kept  in  the  best  possible  state. 

"Oxen  fed  with  forty  weight  of  these  roots  per  day,  with 
ten  pounds  of  hay,  for  one  month,  and  after  that  with  fifty 
weight  per  day  of  the  roots  alone,  will  be  fat  enough  for  sale 
in  two  months  more. 

"  Man  can  eat  this  vegetable  throughout  the  year  ;  it  is 
agreeable  and  healthy.  No  insect  attacks  it,  and  it  sufl^ers 
but  little  from  the  variety  of  the  seasons.  The  leaves  of 
this  plant  form  alone  an  excellent  food  for  every  species  of 
domestic  quadruped,  during  four  months  in  the  year.  Tur- 
nips and  other  vegetables  are,  besides,  liable  to  be  destroyed 
by  insects,  whereas  this  beet  is  not.     The  roots  can  be  pre- 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  249 

served  eight  months  in  a  sound  state,  while  turnips  are  of 
little  value  after  March.  In  some  soils  turnips  will  not  grow, 
particularly  in  those  which  are  very  stiff  or  strong.  The 
root  of  scarcity  grows  everywhere.  The  milk  of  cows  fed 
on  turnips  has  a  bad  taste  ;  that  of  those  fed  on  this  plant  is 
excellent,  as  is  also  the  butter  made  from  it.  This  forage 
on  green  fodder  comes  also  at  the. hot  seasons,  when  almost 
all  other  green  food  is  scarce,  and  sometimes  not  to  be  pro- 
cured. Cattle  never  get  tired  of  it.  In  many  parts  of  Ger- 
many, where  it  is  raised  with  success,  they  prefer  it  to  every 
tiling  else  to  fatten  those  large  herds  of  cattle  which  they 
annually  export  to  France.  In  feeding  cattle  with  beets,  the 
same  dry  food  must  be  given  which  is  usually  given  with 
turnips." 

Colonel  Powel  observes,  "  My  neat  cattle  prefer  mano-el- 
wurtzel  to  any  roots  which  I  have  offered  to  them.  I  have 
found  its  effects  in  producing  large  secretions  of  good  milk 
very  great.  I  selected,  in  November,  two  heifers  of  the 
same  breed,  and  very  nearly  of  the  same  age,  and  in  similar 
condition  ;  they  were  fed  in  adjoining  stalls,  and  have  been 
fed  regularly  three  times  a  day,  by  the  same  man.  One  of 
them  has  had  three  pecks  of  mangel-wurtzel  and  four  quarts 
of  corn-meal  daily  ;  the  other,  foui"  and  a  half  pecks  of 
mangel-wurtzel.  The  last,  which  has  had  mangel-wurtzel 
alone,  is  in  the  condition  of  good  beef;  the  other  is  not  more 
than  what  graziers  call  half  fat. 

"  The  application  of  mangel-wurtzel  as  food  for  sheep  is 
not  the  least  important  of  its  uses.  Ewes  yean  usually  at 
the  season  when  grass  cannot  be  supplied.  The  health 
of  themselves  and  the  thrift  of  their  lambs  essentially  depend 
upon  succulent  food  being  had.  I  am  inclined  to  think,  that 
no  small  portion  of  the  success  which  English  breeders  have 
met,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  large  stores  of  roots  which  they 
always  have  at  command.  It  cannot  be  denied,  that  Indian 
meal  will  of  itself,  in  most  cases,  produce  extraordinary  fat- 
ness, as  well  as  great  size  ;  but  I  have  been  led  to  believe, 
that  diseases  are  early  engendered  by  this  species  of  forcing, 
which  is  always  expensive,  and  too  often  eventually  destroys 
the  animal  which  has  been  thus  reared." 

Messrs.  T.  and  H.  Little  observe,  as  to  the  value  of  the 
roots  for  feeding  stock,  "There  is  a  variety  of  opinions  ;  but, 
from  a  number  of  years'  experience,  we  think  them  a  valua- 
ble addition,  and  highly  worth  cultivating.  Comparing  them 
with  English  hay,  and  we  know  of  no  better  standard,  in 


250  THE   COMPLETE   FAUMER 

our  opinion,  three  tons  of  mangel-wurtzel,  or  potatoes,  (of 
the  two,  we  value  the  mangel-wurtzel  the  highest,)  are 
equal  to  one  ton  of  hay,  for  feeding  stock  generally  ;  but 
for  rnilch  cows,  we  think  two  tons  of  equal  value.  For  feed- 
ing store  swine,  mangel-wurtzel  is  the  only  root  that  we 
know  of  which  we  can  cultivate  and  feed  to  profit.  Six 
bushels  of  raw  mangel-wurtzel  we  think  equal  to  one  bushel 
of  Indian  corn." 

Quantity  to  an  Acre.  The  premium  crop  of  the  Messrs. 
Litile  was  thirty-three  tons  ten  hundred  weight  and  four- 
teen pounds  on  an  acre.  Colonel  Powel  inclosed  certificates 
to  the  president  of  the  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Society, 
showing  that  sixteen  hundred  and  thirty-four  bushels  of  man- 
gel-wurtzel, weighing  seventy-eight  thousand  four  hundred 
and  forty-eight  pounds,  were  produced  upon  one  acre  and 
fourteen  perches  ;  and  a  part  of  the  same  field,  containing 
thirteen  contiguous  rows,  produced  at  the  rate  of  two  thou- 
sand and  sixty-five  bushels  per  acre,  weighing  forty-four 
tons  five  hundred  and  twenty-seven  pounds.  In  Great  Bri- 
tain, it  is  said  that  upwards  of  sixty  tons  have  been  raised 
on  an  acre. 

Gathenng  and  Preserving.  In  gathering  the  roots,  care 
should  be  taken  to  cut  ofi'  the  leaves  about  half  an  inch 
above  the  crown,  as  they  will  not  keep  so  well  if  cut  more 
closely.  Messrs.  Tristram  and  Henry  Little  say,  "As  to 
the  best  mode  of  preserving  them,  we  have  tried  divers 
ways,  —  by  pitting  them,  by  putting  them  into  a  barn  and 
covering  them  with  hay,  and  by  putting  them  into  the 
cellar  ;  the  last  mode  we  think  the  best."  Colonel  Powel 
observes,  that  one  of  his  crops  was  "  piled  in  a  cellar,  in 
rows,  as  wood,  and  covered  with  sand."  A  writer  in  the 
"  English  Farmer's  Journal  "  observes,  that  he  has  practis- 
ed, with  success,  the  following  mode  of  preserving  this  root : 
"  I  pack  it  in  long  heaps,  about  seven  feet  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom. I  begin  by  forming  the  outsides  with  the  roots,  not 
stripped  of  their  tops  ;  tops  outwards  ;  the  internal  parts  to 
be  filled  with  roots  without  leaves  ;  continue  one  laver  over 
another,  until  the  heap  is  about  six  feet  high,  and  about  two 
feet  broad  at  top,  which  may  be  covered  with  straw  and 
earth  ;  the  ends  of  the  heap  should  be  covered  in  the  same 
way.  The  leaves  form  an  efficient  covering  against  rain  and 
frost." 

Mr.   M'Mahon's  mode  of   preserving    beets    and   other 
roots  is  as  follows  :   "Previous   to    the   commencement   of 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  251 

severe  frost,  you  should  take  up,  with  as  little  injury  as  pos- 
sible, the  roots  of  your  turnips,  carrots,  parsneps,  beets,  sal- 
sify, scorzonera,  Hamburg  or  large-rooted  parsley,  skirrets, 
Jerusalem  artichokes,  turnip-rooted  celery,  and  a  sufficiency 
of  horseradish  for  the  winter  consumption  ;  cut  off  their 
tops,  and  expose  the  roots  for  a  few  hours,  till  sufficiently 
dry.  On  the  surface  of  a  very  dry  spot  of  ground,  in  a  well 
sheltered  situation,  lay  a  stratum  of  sand  two  inches  thick, 
and  on  this  a  layer  of  roots,  of  either  sort,  covering  them 
with  another  layer  of  sand,  (the  drier  the  better,)  and  so 
continue  the  layers  of  sand  and  roots  till  all  are  laid  in,  giv- 
ing the  whole,  on  every  side,  a  roof-like  slope  ;  then  cover 
this  heap  or  ridge  all  over  with  about  two  inches  of  sand, 
over  which  lay  a  good  coat  of  drawn  straw,  up  and  down, 
as  if  thatching  a  house,  in  order  to  carry  off  wet  and  pre- 
vent its  entering  the  roots  ;  then  dig  a  wide  trench  round 
the  heap,  and  cover  the  straw  with  the  earth  so  dug  up,  to  a 
depth  sufficient  to  preserve  the  roots  effectually  from  frost. 
An  opening  may  be  made  on  the  south  side  of  this  heap, 
and  completely  covered  with  bundles  of  straw,  so  as  to  have  ' 
access  to  the  roots  at  all  times,  when  wanted  either  for  sale 
or  use. 

"  Some  people  lay  straw  or  hay  between  the  layers  of 
roots,  and  immediately  on  the  top  of  them  ;  this  I  do  not 
approve  of,  as  the  straw  or  hay  will  become  damp  and 
mouldy,  and  very  often  occasion  the  roots  to  rot,  while  the 
sand  would  preserve  them  sweet  and  sound. 

"All  these  roots  may  be  preserved  in  like  manner  in  a 
cellar  ;  but  in  such  a  place  they  are  subject  to  vegetate  and 
become  stringy  earlier  in  spring.  The  only  advantage  of 
this  method  is,  that  in  the  cellar  they  may  be  had  when 
wanted  more  conveniently  during  winter  than  out  of  the  field 
or  garden  heaps. 

"  JVote.  All  the  above  roots  will  preserve  better  in  sand 
than  in  common  earth  ;  but  when  the  former  cannot  be  had, 
the  sandiest  earth  you  can  procure  may  be  used." 


RUTA  BAGA.  The  following  is  an  account  of  the 
method  of  cultivating  ruta  baga,  adopted  by  Rev.  Henry 
Colman,  in  obtaining  a  crop  for  which  he  received  a  pre- 
mium of  twenty  dollars  from  "  The  Massachusetts  Agricul- 
tural Society, '•  in  1830;  from  "The  New  England  Far- 
mer "  ;  — 


2o2  THE   COMPLETE   FABMER 

"  On  an  acre,  on  one  side  of  the  field,  there  were  gath- 
ered seven  hundred  and  torty-one  baskets  lull  ;  and  forty 
baskets  of  the  above-named  weighed  at  the  town  scales  two 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  net  weight.  This, 
allowing  fifty-six  pounds  to  a  bushel,  the  standard  weight 
assumed  by  the  Society,  would  give  a  crop  of  nine  hundred 
and  three  bushels  to  the  acre. 

"  The  turnips  were  planted  on  the  29th  of  June  and  2d  of 
July  ;  about  one  pound  and  a  half  of  seed  was  used  for  the 
acre  ;  and  they  were  gathered  and  stored  in  cellars  and  in 
the  barn,  in  the  last  part  of  November. 

"The  ground  on  which  they  grew  is  a  good  soil,  neither 
wet  nor  dry,  and  bore  the  last  year  an  abundant  crop  of 
onions,  and  corn  the  year  preceding  the  last.  It  was  well 
manured  at  both  times,  and  in  fine  tilth.  It  was  manured 
with  at  least  six  cords  to  the  acre  of  barn  manure,  the  last 
spring,  and  sowed  again  to  onions  ;  but  the  seed  entirely 
failing,  it  was  ploughed,  harrowed,  furrows  struck  out,  and 
about  eight  cords  of  barn  manure  spread  in  the  furrows  ; 
ploughed  again,  so  as  by  a  back  furrow  to  form  a  ridge  over 
the  manure,  and  the  seed  sown  with  a  small  drill-harrow  on 
the  ridges,  making  the  rows  about  twenty  inches  asunder. 
As  soon  as  the  plants  were  of  sufficient  size,  a  drill-harrow, 
with  small  shares  fixed  to  it,  to  cut  off  all  the  weeds,  was 
passed  through  the  rows  ;  and  the  plants  thinned  with  u 
small  weeding  hoe  to  the  distance  of  about  eight  inches 
apart,  and  the  vacant  places  filled  up  by  transplanting  from 
the  supernumerary  plants.  They  were  once  more  harrowed 
and  cleaned,  which  was  a  very  small  labor  ;  and  owing  to 
the  very  unpropitious  weather  were  not  harvested  until  very 
late.  Some  of  them  were  very  large  ;  one  weighed  fifteen 
pounds,  and  many  were  nearly  as  large.  The  exact  expense 
of  cultivating  the  acre  cannot  be  estimated,  as  it  was  inter- 
mixed with  other  farm  work  ;  but  the  whole,  from  the  sow- 
ing to  the  gathering,  was  not  two-thirds  of  the  labor  usually 
bestowed  on  planting,  cultivating,  and  gathering  an  acre  of 
potatoes. 

"My  Swedish  turnips  the  last  year  were  fed  off  to  my 
oxen,  dry  cows,  young  stock,  and  fatting  sheep.  To  the 
cattle  they  were  of  very  great  advantage  ;  and  for  feeding 
sheep,  they  proved  worth  from  ten  to  twelve  and  half  cents 
per  bushel.  Three  years'  experiment  has  increased  their 
value  very  much  for  these  purposes  in  my  own  estimation." 


AND   Rl'RAL   ECONOMIST.  253 

A  correspondent  in  "The  New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol. 
XI.  p.  277,)  says  : 

"  The  soil  for  the  culture  of  the  ruta  baga  must  be  rich 
and  dry;  and  the  more  it  inclines  to  a  sand  loam  the  better. 
Clay  is  the  worst,  and  wet  soils  will  not  answer  at  all.  My 
general  practice  has  been,  to  manure  well  a  piece  of  pasture, 
or  clover  ley,  from  which  the  hay  has  first  been  cut,  plough 
it  handsomely  over,  and  harrow  it  well.  I  sow  in  rows,  at 
two  and  half  or  three  feet,  with  a  drill-harrow.  The  sooner 
the  preceding  operations  succeed  each  other  the  better.  I 
have  sown  broad-cast,  but  the  expense  of  thinning  and 
culture  is  increased.  A  man  will  drill  in  three  or  four  acres 
a  day.  We  allow  a  pound  of  seed  to  the  acre,  though  half 
this,  properly  distributed,  is  enough.  Sow  from  the  26th  of 
June  to  the  10th  of  July. 

"  Culture.  I  use  a  cultivator,  that  may  be  graduated  to 
the  space  between  the  rows,  drawn  by  a  horse,  as  soon  as 
the  plants  can  be  well  distinguished.  This  is  repeated  in  a 
few  days,  back  and  forward,  and  the  implement  carried  so 
close  to  the  drills,  as  to  leave  only  strips  of  from  four  to  ten 
inches,  which  are  then  thoroughly  cleaned  with  a  skim  hoe, 
and  the  plants  thinned  to  eight  and  ten  inches'  distance. 
The  cultivator  soon  follows  for  a  third  time,  and  if  necessary 
the  skim  hoe,  when  the  crop  is  generally  left  till  harvest. 
The  great  aim  is  to  extirpate  the  weeds,  and  to  do  this  while 
they  are  small. 

"  Harvesting  is  postponed  as  long  as  the  season  will  per- 
mit. The  roots  are  then  pulled  up  and  laid  on  the  ground, 
the  tops  of  the  two  rows  towards  each  other.  The  pullers 
are  followed  by  a  man  or  boy  with  a  bill-hook,  who  with  a 
light  blow  cuts  the  tops  as  fast  as  three  or  four  can  pull. 
Three  men  will  in  this  way  harvest,  of  a  good  crop,  three 
hundred  bushels  in  a  day.  The  tops  are  gathered  into  heaps 
and  taken  to  the  yard  in  carts  daily,  for  the  stock,  until 
they  are  consumed.  An  acre  will  give  from  five  to  ten  cart- 
loads of  tops.  The  roots  are  piled  in  the  field  if  dry  ;  the 
pits,  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet  broad,  covered  with  straw 
and  earth,  and  as  cold  weather  approaches,  with  manure,  to 
prevent  frost.  N.  B.  With  a  crow-bar  make  one  or  more 
holes  on  the  crown  of  the  pit,  which  must  be  left  open,  to  let 
off  the  rarefied  air  and  prevent  the  roots  from  heating. 

"  Use.     The  tops  serve  for  autumn.     As  soon  as  the  mild 
weather  of  spring  will  justify,  I  break  through  the  frost,  and 
take  the  contents  of  a  pit   to  mv  barn,  and  cover  the  roots 
22 


254  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

with  straw  or  hay.  From  thence  they  are  fed  to  my  stock, 
being  first  chopped  up  with  a  snik,  (Dutch  meat-chopper,) 
or  spade.  They  are  excellent  for  sheep,  especially  for  ewes 
that  have  young  ;  and  hogs  and  horses  eat  them  freely. 
Steamed,  they  are  used  in  the  north  of  England  for  horses 
as  a  substitute  for  grain.  I  have  fattened  sheep  and  bul- 
locks upon  them  with  profit.  They  constitute,  particularly 
from  February  to  June,  an  excellent  culinary  vegetable  for 
the  table.  A  bullock  will  thrive  fast  upon  two  bushels  a 
day,  and  will  consume  hardly  any  hay,  and  requires  no 
drink. 

"  Product  and  Cost.  ^Nly  average  crop  has  been  six  hun- 
dred bushels  per  acre,  though  others  have  raised  much  heavi- 
er products.  The  cost  in  manure  and  labor,  when  they  are 
secured  for  winter,  has  been  from  two  to  three  cents  per 
bushel. 

"  N.  B.  Cattle  or  sheep  fattened  upon  this  root  should 
be  kept  from  eating  them  for  eight  or  ten  days  before  they 
are  slaughtered^  otherwise  the  meat  will  have  an  unpleasant 
savor.  J.  B." 


ENGLISH  TURNIPS.  Every  farmer  will  find  it  profit- 
able to  raise  a  quantity  of  these  roots.  The  mangel-wurtzel 
and  the  ruta  baga,  useful  as  they  undoubtedly  are,  will  not 
completely  supersede,  nor  altogether  supply  the  place  of  the 
old-fashioned  English  turnip.  In  the  "  oNIemoirs  of  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  of  the  State  of  New  York,"  (Vol.  I.  p.  26,) 
we  find  the  following  remarks  on  the  best  mode  of  cultivating 
this  valuable  root  : 

"  There  is  no  difficulty  in  raising  turnips  on  new  land;  but 
it  is  very  desirable  to  know  the  best  mode  of  raising  them, 
at  least  a  small  patch  every  year,  on  old  farms.  3Ir.  Henry 
De  Bois,  of  Rensselaer  county,  and  Major  E.  Cady,  of 
Columbia  county,  say,  that  they  have  succeeded  in  obtaining 
good  crops  several  years  in  succession  by  the  following  pro- 
cess. Turn  over  a  turf  of  old  sward  the  first  week  in  June. 
Yard  your  cattle  at  night  on  this,  in  the  proportion  of  six 
head  at  least  to  a  quarter  of  an  acre,  until  the  20th  of  July. 
Then  harrow  lengthwise  the  furrows,  so  as  not  to  disturb  or 
overturn  them,  and  sow  in  the  proportion  of  about  half  a 
pound  of  seed  per  acre. 

"  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  yard  cattle  upon  it  sufficiently, 
about   two    inches  of  well-rotted  manure,   harrowed   in   as 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  255 

above,  will  do  as  a  substitute.  Mr.  C.  R.  Golden  applies  the 
manure  by  strewing  it  in  shallow  furrows,  two  feet  apart  ; 
then  buries  the  manure  by  two  side  furrows,  and  harrows  the 
ground  level,  lengthwise  of  the  furrows.  This  method  re- 
quires less  manure,  and  he  has  the  advantage  of  hoeing  the 
turnips  in  drills." 

We  recollect  likewise,  that  we  have  read,  in  several  of  our 
New  England  newspapers,  that  fine  turnips  have  been  raised 
by  ploughing  up  old  sward  ground  some  time  in  June,  har- 
rowing well,  and  sowing  from  the  1st  to  the  20th  of  July, 
and  this  witho\it  the  application  of  manure.  But  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  folding  sheep  or  horned  cattle  on  the  land 
thus  ploughed  would  very  much  enhance  the  crop. 

All  American  writers  on  this  subject,  whose  works  we 
have  perused,  advise  to  sow  seed  of  the  common  English 
turnip  as  late  as  about  the  middle  of  July.  They  tell  us,  that 
late  sowed  turnips  are  much  the  best  for  the  table,  and  that 
they  are  less  liable  to  be  injured  by  insects,  if  sown  so  late, 
than  when  sown  much  earlier  in  the  season. 

Turnips  are  frequently,  if  not  most  generally,  raised  in  the 
United  States  as  a  second  crop  ;  and  no  doubt  this  practice 
is  often  very  eligible,  and  may  be  perfectly  consonant  with 
the  soundest  maxims  of  good  husbandry.  But  when  it  is 
intended  to  ma^-e  the  most  of  ijour  crop  oj  turnips,  or  to  obtain 
as  great  a  product  as  possible  for  the  purpose  of  feeding 
cattle,  we  do  not  perceive  any  objection  to  giving  turnips  a 
larger  portion  of  the  season  to  grow  in  than  has  been  with 
us  the  general  practice. 

An  English  writer  on  agriculture,  whose  remarks  on  this 
and  other  agricultural  topics  appear  to  us  to  be  judicious, 
and  to  display  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subjects  of  his 
essays,  says,  "It  is  not  pretended,  that  there  lies  any  solid 
objection  to  early  sowing  of  turnips,  simply  considered  ;  on 
the  contrary,  such  seems  to  be  the  most  proper  means  of  ob- 
taining a  full  crop  ;  but  the  advantages  of  early  sowing, 
whatever  they  be,  are  given  up,  and  the  season  postponed 
from  near  three  to  five  months,  by  way  of  retarding  the 
growth  of  the  crop,  that  it  may  last  to  a  later  period  in  the 
spring,  and  receive  less  damage  from  the  frosts  than  that  to 
which  it  would  be  liable  in  its  early  maturity.  The  disad- 
vantages attending  this  plan  are  a  crop  far  inferior  in  weight 
to  what  might  be  obtained  from  the  land,  and  the  very  common 
risk  of  destruction  from  drought  and  fly.  The  weight  and 
perfection  of  the  turnips  being  the  objects,  the  land  may  be 


2o6  THE    COiMPLETE    FARMER 

got  ready  for  them  as  for  any  other  early  spring  crop,  and 
the  seed  sown  with  the  first  warm  showers.  This  will  afford 
ample  scope  for  resowing,  should  the  first  seed  fail,  of  which, 
however,  granting  it  to  be  good,  and  the  land  sufficiently 
fine,  I  believe  there  is  scarcely  any  risk.  As  to  any  advan- 
tages of  a  crop  previous  to  the  turnips,  nothing  scarcely  can 
stand  in  competition  with  the  first  crop  of  roots. 

"The  true  turnip  soil  is  a  deep  sand  or  sandy  loam.  Every 
gardener  knows  the  proper  time  to  begin  hoeing  turnips.  In 
general,  when  the  plants  spread  a  circle  of  about  four  inches 
they  are  ready  for  the  first  hoeing.  They  are  commonly 
left  about  a  foot  asunder.  The  second  hoeing  three  weeks 
after  the  first." 

Those  who  desire  to  go  extensively  and  successfully  into 
the  turnip  culture  should  raise  their  own  seed  from  the  finest 
transplanted  roots.  An  English  cultivator  savs,  "  It  is  won- 
derful what  a  small  quantity  of  seed  suffices  for  an  acre  of 
ground,  and  indeed  equally  so  how  it  can  be  delivered  and 
spread  over  such  a  breadth.  A  pint  might  be  more  than 
enough,  but  it  is  usual  to  broad-cast  a  quart  on  an  acre." 

Dr.  Deane's  "New  England  Farmer  "  asserts,  that  "the 
quantity  of  seed  sown  on  an  acre  is  never  less  than  one 
pound,  frequently  a  pound  and  a  half,  and  by  some  two. 
According  to  the  same  work,  it  is  very  necessary  for  the  suc- 
cess of  the  crop  that  a  heavy  roller  be  passed  over  the  field 
immediately  after  harrowing  in  the  seed,  provided  the  ground 
is  sufficiently  dry,  or  as  soon  as  it  is  in  a  fit  condition.  By 
this  means  the  clods  are  broken,  and  much  of  the  seed  that 
would  otherwise  be  exposed  to  birds,  &c.  will  be  covered, 
and  the  surface  rendered  smooth  and  compact  thereby,  and 
consequently  more  retentive  of  moisture,  which  will  great- 
ly promote  the  vegetation  of  the  seed  and  growth  of  the 
plants." 

If  a  quantity  of  lime  were  sowed  over  the  field  immediate- 
ly after  putting  in  the  seed,  it  would  probably  preserve  the 
crop  against  insects  and  prevent  the  turnips  becoming 
spongy,  as  well  as  increase  their  size.  Unleached  ashes, 
soot,  and  plaster,  have  also  been  highly  recommended  as 
manure  for  turnips.  Thomas  Mellville,  Jun.  Esq.,  of  Pitts- 
field,  Massachusetts,  in  raising  a  crop  which  received  the 
premium  from  "  The  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Society," 
in  1817,  and  which  amounted  to  about  seven  hundred  and 
fifty  bushels  to  the  acre,  sowed  his  seeds  in  drills  of  twenty- 
eight   inches  the  Slst  of  June,  on  ground    previously  well 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  257 

manured.  The  following  day  sowed  on  the  acre  thirty 
bushels  slacked  lime  and  fifteen  bushels  house  ashes. 

What  we  have  said  about  the  early  sowing  of  turnips  we 
would  merely  suggest  as  a  hint,  or  something  to  be  thought 
of,  and  perhaps  become  a  matter  of  experiment.  It  appears 
to  us  that  our  custom  of  sowing  turnips  so  late  in  the  season, 
as  is  commonly  practised,  is  an  usage  borrowed  from  British 
husbandry,  without  duly  considering  the  difference  of  our 
climate  from  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  different  uses  to 
which  this  crop  is  commonly  applied  in  the  two  countries. 
In  England  they  usually  feed  turnips  off  the  ground  with 
sheep  ;  or  draw  them  for  neat  cattle  during  the  winter,  as 
fast  as  they  are  wanted,  and  often  let  them  stand  in  the  field 
till  spring,  to  supply  green  food  for  sheep  at  the  time  of  their 
yeaning,  &c.  But  in  the  United  States,  this  crop  must  be 
harvested  in  autumn  and  secured  from  frost  ;  and  it  would 
seem  to  be  desirable  that  they  should  have  had  time  to  ob- 
tain their  full  growth  before  they  are  gathered. 

Ellis,  an  old  writer  on  husbandry,  says,  "Turnips  sooted 
about  twenty-four  hours  after  they  are  up  will  be  entirely 
secured  from  the  fly."  Some  advise,  and  it  may  be  well,  if 
not  too  much  trouble,  to  leach  soot  and  sprinkle  the  young 
turnips  with  the  liquor.  M'Mahon,  in  treating  of  the  culti- 
vation of  turnips,  says,  "  the  plants  should  be  left  from  seven 
to  twelve  inches  every  way;  this  must  be  regulated  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  of  the  land,  the  time  of  sowing,  and  the 
kind  of  turnips  cultivated  ;  strong  ground  and  early  sowing 
always  producing  the  largest  roots." 

The  width  of  the  hoe  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  me- 
dium distance  to  be  left  between  the  plants,  and  this  to  their 
expected  size.  The  critical  time  of  the  first  hoeing  is,  when 
the  plants,  as  they  lie  spread  on  the  ground,  are  nearly  the 
size  of  the  palm  of  the  hand  ;  if,  however,  seed-weeds  be 
numerous  and  luxuriant,  they  ought  to  be  checked  before 
the  turnip  plants  arrive  at  that  size  ;  lest,  being  drawn  up 
tall  and  slender,  they  should  acquire  a  weak  and  sickly 
habit.  A  second  hoeing  should  be  given  when  the  leaves 
are  grown  to  the  height  of  eight  or  nine  inches,  in  order  to 
destroy  weeds,  loosen  the  earth,  and  finally  to  regulate  the 
plants  ;  a  third,  if  found  necessary,  may  be  given  at  any  sub- 
sequent period.  Here  will  the  farmer  exclaim  against  the 
expense  and  trouble  of  hoeing  ;  but  let  him  try  one  acre  in 
this  way,  and  leave  another  of  the  same  quality  to  nature, 
as  is  too  frequently  done,  and  he  will  find  that  the  extra 
22* 


258  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

produce  of  the  hoed  acre  will  more  than  compensate  for  the 
labor  bestowed. 

Loudon  says,  archbishop  Garrie,  a  Scottish  gardener  of 
merit,  tried  steeping  the  seed  in  sulphur,  sowing  soot,  ashes, 
and  sea-sand  along  the  drills,  all  without  effect.  At  last  he 
tried  dusting  the  rows,  when  the  plants  were  in  the  seed-leaf, 
with  quicklime,  and  found  that  effectual  in  preventing  the 
depredations  of  the  fly.  "  A  bushel  of  quicklime,"  he  says, 
"  is  sufficient  to  dust  over  an  acre  of  drilled  turnips,  and  a 
boy  may  soon  be  taught  to  lay  it  on  almost  as  fast  as  he 
could  walk  along  the  drills.  If  the  seminal  leaves  are  pow- 
dered in  the  slightest  degree,  it  is  sufficient  ;  but  should  the 
rain  wash  the  lime  off  before  the  turnips  are  in  the  rough 
leaf,  it  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  operation,  if  the  fly 
begins  to  make  its  appearance." 


POTATOES.  "  Above  two  nundred  and  forty  years  have 
elapsed  since  the  introduction  of  the  potato  into  the  British 
isles.  During  that  period,  it  has  been  gradually  making  its 
way  in  the  favor  of  the  inhabitants  ;  but  its  progress  for  a 
long  time  was  very  limited.  So  slight,  indeed,  was  the  esti- 
mation in  which  it  was  held,  even  after  the  era  of  the  revo- 
lution, that  we  find  the  celebrated  Evelyn,  in  the  year  1699, 
giving  directions  to  plant  potatoes  in  the  worst  grounds. 
'  Take  them  up,'  he  says,  'in  November,  for  winter  spend- 
ing ;  there  will  enough  remain  for  a  stock,  though  they  be 
ever  so  exactly  gathered.' 

"  The  potato  began  however  to  be  extensively  cultivated 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century  ;  and  now  it  is  grown 
in  every  farm  and  cottage  garden,  almost  without  exception. 

"  If  experience  seemed  to  have  proved  beyond  a  doubt 
that  this  root  may  be  deemed  one  of  the  most  important  vege- 
table productions  ;  if,  in  the  face  of  every  assertion  to  the 
contrary,  it  be  found  a  very  valuable  and,  generally  speak- 
ing, a  most  salubrious  article  *  of  diet,  and  admirably  adapt- 

*  It  has  been  argued  that  the  potato,  at  least  under  certain  conditions,  pos- 
sesses a  slightly  poisonous  quality.  The  idea  may  have  originated  in  the  botan- 
ic character  of  the  plant  ;  in  fact,  it  is  one  of  the  family  of  the  nightshade, 
tile  solatium  tuberosum  of  Linnseus,  and  of  the  old  natural  order  luridae,  which 
included  plants  whose  appearance  was  described  as  being  "  dusky,  dismal,  and 
gloomy."  The  genus  or  family  solarium  is  the  type  of  that  numerous  tribe  or 
order  in  the  natural  system,  solanea,  many  of  whose  members  exhibit  great 
beauty  of  appearance  and  possess  veiy  useful  properties. 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  259 

ed  to  supply  nutritious  food  for  animals  and  poultry  ;  it 
becomes  a  serious  interest  to  determine  with  certainty  that 
mode  of  culture  which  shall,  at  all  times,  and  in  all  situ- 
ations, tend  to  produce  the  heaviest  crops,  and  of  the  finest 
quality. 

"  Mr.  Knight,  the  president  of  the  '  English  Horticultural 
Society,'  has  observed,  that  he  planted  his  potatoes  upon  a 
soil  naturally  poor  and  very  shallow  ;  upon  a  rock  full  of  fis- 
sures, giving  no  more  manure  than  is  usualhj  given  to  a  crop 
of  turnips  ;  the  manure  was  mixed  up  with  the  soil,  and  not 
thrown  into  the  drills  at  the  time  of  planting.  The  plants 
sutfered  from  drought  during  a  part  of  the  year  ;  neverthe- 
less, he  had  very  good  crops  from  many  varieties.  These 
varieties  he  had  himself  originated  from  seed  ;  and  they  pos- 
sess the  important  quality  of  scarcely  producing  any  blos- 
soms, and  therefore  the  vital  powers  of  the  plant  are  en- 
tirely employed  in  the  production  and  support  of  those  tube- 
rous processes,  the  potatoes,  which  are  the  sole  object  of  the 
cultivator.  The  produce  of  two  of  the  sorts  is  stated  as 
follows  ;  of  the  one,  twenty-three  tons  two  hundred  weight 
seventy-six  pounds  ;  and  the  other,  twenty  tons  two  hundred 
weight  one  hundred  and  one  pounds,  per  acre.  Of  four 
other  varieties  he  observes,  '  the  produce  exceeded  twenty 
tons  each  per  acre,  all  of  good  quality.'  If  the  reader  will 
reduce  these  weights  to  pounds,  he  will  find  them  (reckoning 
the  yield  at  twenty  tons  only  per  acre)  to  amount  to  five 
hundred  and  sixty  Ijushels,  each  of  eighty  pounds'  weight. 

"  One  of  the  chief,  if  not  the  primary,  agent  in  effecting 
vegetable  developement  and  maturity,  is  light.  Deprive  a 
plant  of  that,  and  you  either  paralyze  the  operation  of  its 
vital  principle,  or  induce  imperfect  and  diseased  action.  The 
leaves  of  vegetables  are  the  media  upon  which  light  acts  ; 
and,  therefore,  it  should  be  the  object  of  the  gardener  so  to 
arrange  his  crops,  that  the  utmost  breadth  of  their  foliage 
may  be  exposed  to  the  full  influence  of  the  solar  rays. 
Hence,  the  rows  of  potatoes  ought  to  point  north  and  south  ; 
for,  in  the  first  place,  plants  so  exposed  command  the  great- 
est breadth  and  duration  of  light  ;  and  in  the  second,  the  sun, 
at  the  time  of  his  highest  meridian  altitude,  that  is,  at  the 
hour  of  noon,  shines  directly  along  the  extent  of  the  rows  ; 
his  light  is  also  most  equally  distributed  upon  the  whole 
foliage  as  he  approaches  to  and  recedes  from  the  meridian. 
The  perpendicularity  of  growth,  which  is  of  considerable 
importance  to  the  complete  success  of  the  crop,  is  less  likely 


260  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

to  be  disturbed  by  this  mode  of  arrangement,  than  by  any 
other  that  has  heretofore  been  employed.  It  is  generally  the 
practice  to  plant  small  potatoes,  or  sets  of  large  tubers,  cut 
with  one  or  two  eyes  to  each.  These  sets  are  planted  in 
rows,  from  sixteen  to  twenty  inches  asunder,  and  the  sets 
about  half  that  distance,  or  nine  inches  apart,  without  any 
consideration  being  had  to  the  aspect  or  direction  of  the 
rows.  As  the  stems  advance  in  growth,  they  are  very  liable 
to  fall  over  and  become  entangled  one  with  another,  thus  in- 
tercepting the  solar  light,  which  then  acts  unequally  upon 
the  disorderly  masses  of  foliage.  Hence  the  crops  become 
very  unequal  in  point  of  bulk  and  weight. 

"  Mr.  Knight's  philosophical  directions  lead  to  a  very  dif- 
ferent result.  He  recommends  the  planting  of  whole  potatoes, 
and  those  only  which  are  of  fine  medium  size,  none  to  be  of 
less  weight  than  four  ounces  ;  and  he  often  prefers  those 
which  weigh  six  or  eight  ounces.  The  earlier  sorts,  and, 
indeed,  all  which  seldom  attain  a  greater  height  than  two 
feet,  are  to  be  planted  about  four  or  five  inches  apart  in  the 
rows,  centre  from  centre,  the  crown  ends  upward  ;  the  rows 
to  be- from  two  feet  six  inches  to  three  feet  asunder.  The 
late  potatoes,  which  produce  a  haulm  above  three  feet  in 
height,  are  to  be  placed  five  or  six  inches  apart,  centre  from 
centre,  in  rows  four  or  five  feet  asunder. 

"  When  potatoes  are  thus  planted  in  rows  pointing  north 
and  south,  the  utmost  energy  of  the  light  will  be  exerted, 
not  only  upon  the  foliage  of  the  plant,  but  upon  the  surface 
of  the  intervening  spaces  of  ground.  If  we  suppose  that  the 
main  crops  will  be  planted  at  the  latter  end  of  March  and 
during  the  month  of  April,  the  sun's  meridional  altitude  will 
be  advancing  daily  for  at  least  nine  weeks  ;  and  during  that 
period,  the  developement  and  growth  of  the  stem  and  leaves 
will  be  in  a  state  of  rapid  progress.  After  the  turn  of  days, 
and  when  the  plants  have  attained  their  full  growth,  the  sun 
will  continue  to  exert  its  most  powerful  influence.  Should 
the  ground  be  of  a  proper  texture  and  quality,  the  plants 
will  stand  erect,  and  the  maturing  process  will  proceed  with- 
out interruption  ;  and  after  favorable  summers,  wherein 
there  have  been  regular  and  moderate  supplies  of  rain,  par- 
ticularly during  May  and  June,  with  a  prevalence,  however, 
of  bright  sunshine,  the  crops  of  potatoes  will  be  regular,  the 
tubers  generally  of  a  medium  size,  and  the  quality  mealy, 
and  altogether  superior.  If  the  soil  be  a  strong  mellow 
loam,  enriched  with  much  manure,  the  haulm  will,  in  all  prob- 


AND   RUKAL   ECONOMIST.  261 

ability,  grow  too  rank,  and  finally  fall  over  ;  nevertheless 
the  large  spaces  between,  the  rows  will  greatly  remedy  this 
evil,  for  the  sun's  beams  will  act  upon  one  surface  at  the 
least,  and  the  matting  and  other  injurious  consequences  re- 
sulting from  close  drilling  will  be  prevented  or  obviated. 
We  hear  everywhere  of  potato  plants  running  away  to  haulm, 
and  thus  expending  their  vital  energy  upon  useless  stem  and 
foliage,  instead  of  employing  it  in  the  production  of  tuberous 
roots.  Now  this  remark  is  wholly  opposed  to  philosophical 
fact,  for  invariably  the  strongest  and  heaviest  bulk  of  potatoes 
is  found  attached  to  the  most  lu.\uriant  haulm.  The  evil  of 
over-luxuriance  is  not  to  be  referred  to  the  paucity  of  tube- 
rous product,  for  that  is  always  great  ;  it  is  a  consequence 
of  an  over-rich  soil,  which  causes  the  haulm  to  grow  so  tall 
as  to  fall  over,  become  entangled,  and  thus  to  lose  the  ma- 
turing influence  of  light.  Hence,  such  haulm  seldom  ripens 
in  due  time  ;  it  remains  green  even  in  December  ;  and  the 
tubers,  though  large,  numerous,  and  heavy,  are  immature, 
void  of  mealiness,  and  vapid  in  flavor. 

"  A  fact  of  great  importance  to  the  growers  of  potatoes 
remains  to  benoticed.  The  outside  rows,  and  all  single  rows, 
will  be  found  to  produce  far  greater  crops  than  any  of  the 
interior  rows  of  a  plot  in  the  garden  or  field.  This  depends 
upon  a  variety  of  causes,  the  chief  of  which  is,  the  more 
perfect  exposure  of  the  foliage  to  the  agency  of  air  and 
light.  Mr.  Knight  obtained  from  one  outside  row,  of  an 
early  seedling  variety  of  the  preceding  year,  which  was  two 
feet  six  inches  exterior  of  an  adjoining  row,  '  a  produce 
equivalent  to  more  than  ffly-eight  tons  per  acre.  No  con- 
clusions,' he  says,  '  can  be  drawn  from  the  amount  of 
produce  of  an  external  row.  I  mention  it  only  to  show  the 
enormous  influence  of  light.' 

"Experience  has  established  the  truth  of  this  philosophical 
remark.  Every  cultivator,  who  has  the  opportunity  of  crop- 
ping upon  long  detached  slips,  in  airy,  open  situations, 
should  make  the  experiment  of  close  planting  in  single  rows, 
either  whole  potatoes  or  well-cut  sets  from  very  large  pota- 
toes, each  to  contain  two  eyes  at  the  least.  These  sets 
should  be  taken  from  the  crown  end,  or  middle  of  the  tuber, 
and  not  from  the  lower  or  root  end.  Sets  may  be  planted  at 
still  less  distances  in  the  rows  than  whole  tubers  ;  and  al- 
though the  preference  ought,  in  all  cases,  to  be  given  to  a 
southern  direction,  where  such  can  be  conveniently  given, 
still,  for  absolutely  single  rows,  it  is  not  indispensably  re- 


.^ii 


262  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

quired,  because  air  and  light  will  act  on  each  side  of  the 
stem  and  foliage,  and  there  will  be  no  intervening  shadow. 

'•  The  soil  ought  to  be  sandy  and  light,  though  moderately 
rich  ;  that  is,  if  fine,  mealy,  and  dry  potatoes  be  required.  It 
should  not  by  any  means  be  glutted  with  manure,  and  need 
not  be  deep. 

"  With  respect  to  the  properties  of  this  vegetable,  and  the 
purposes  to  which  it  may  be  applied,  the  following  observa- 
tions of  an  eminent  physician,  Dr.  Pare,  may  not  be  deemed 
inappropriate. 

"  '  Potatoes  are  found  to  produce,  First,  Cottony  flax  from 
the  stalk.  Second,  Sugar  from  the  root.  Third,  Potass  by 
consumption.  Fourth,  Vinegar  from  the  apples.  Fifth, 
Soap,  or  a  substitute  for  bleaching,  from  the  tubercles.  And, 
finally,  when  cooked  by  steam,  the  most  farinaceous  and 
economical  of  all  vegetable  food.' 

"It  is  also  known  that  much  farina,  or  rather  amylum,  or 
starch,  is  yielded  by  grinding  and  washing  the  pulpy  mass. 
This  starch  may  be  employed  as  a  substitute  for  that  made 
from  wheat  ;  and  as  an  article  of  diet,  prepared  as  Indian 
arrow-root.  It  can  also  be  introduced  in  making  bread, 
though  there  is  some  difficulty  in  the  manipulation.  As 
food  for  all  cattle  of  the  farm,  —  horses,  cows,  pigs,  and 
likewise  for  poultry,  potatoes  are  all  but  invaluable.  Every 
creature  appears  to  relish  them,  particularly  when  they  are 
steamed  or  carefully  boiled.  It  would  be  well  worth  the  in- 
telligent farmer's  while  to  pay  great  attention  to  the  use  and 
effects  of  potatoes,  raw  and  boiled.  It  is  asserted,  that  a 
cow  may  safely  eat  them  in  a  raw  state  to  the  extent  of, 
perhaps,  fifty  pounds  per  day,  provided  the  eyes  have  broken 
and  begun  to  shoot.  Whenever  they  be  given  raw,  how- 
ever, they  should  be  chopped  into  pieces  to  prevent  ac- 
cidents. The  utility  of  raw  potatoes  is,  however,  doubted 
by  many,  and  therefore  the  experiment  requires  close  ob- 
servation ;  perhaps  straw,  hay,  and  chaff,  might  be  employ- 
ed as  a  very  proper  adjunct,  with  a  few  ounces  of  salt  added 
to  each  feed.  Whenever  steaming  in  the  large  way  can  be 
profitably  employed,  it  must  be  an  advantage  for  pigs  and 
poultry  particularly  ;  and,  in  all  cases,  it  would  greatly  tend 
to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the  danger  of  suffocation  which 
has  been  known  to  result  from  the  hurry  and  greediness  with 
which  cattle  devour  the  raw  roots." —  Biitish  Farmer's 
Magazine. 

Potatoes  renewed  from   Seed.     "  Take  the   apples  in  the 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  263 

beginning  of  October  [or  whenever  they  are  ripe]  before  the 
frost  has  hurt  them  ;  hang  them  up  by  the  foot-stalks,  in  a 
dry  closet,  where  they  will  not  freeze  ;  let  them  hang  till 
March  or  April  ;  then  mash  the  apples,  wash  the  seeds  from 
the  pulp,  and  dry  them  in  a  sunny  window.  Sow  the  seeds 
in  a  bed,  about  the  1st  of  May.  When  the  plants  are  four 
or  five  inches  high,  transplant  them  into  ground  well  pre- 
pared, one  or  two  plants  in  a  hill.  They  will  produce  full 
grown  apples,  and  some  of  the  roots  will  be  as  large  as  hen's 
eggs.  But  if  the  seeds  were  sown  in  autumn,  some  of  them 
would  come  up  in  the  following  spring.  Nothing  is  more 
common  than  their  appearance  in  fields  where  potatoes  have 
been  raised  the  preceding  year." 

The  process  stated  in  "Monk's  Agricultural  Dictionary," 
an  English  work,  is  similar  to  that  mentioned  by  Dr.  Deane, 
excepting  that  it  is  recommended  in  that  work  to  hang  the 
apples  of  the  potatoes  in  a  warm  room  till  Christmas.  Then 
wash  out  the  seeds,  spread  and  dry  them  in  paper,  and  pre- 
serve them  from  damps  till  spring. 

Potatoes  thus  obtained  will  produce  roots  of  the  full  size 
the  second  season  after  sowing,  when  their  qualities  may  be 
more  fully  ascertained  than  they  could  well  be  the  first  sea- 
son. They  will  be  found  to  vary  very  much  from  the  kinds, 
from  which  the  apples  were  gathered.  It  will  be  expedient 
to  plant  but  one  potato  of  the  regenerated  sorts  in  a  hill, 
that  you  may  keep  each  variety  separate.  Then,  by  keep- 
ing the  produce  of  each  hill  by  itself,  and  boiling  one  or  two 
of  each,  you  may  ascertain  which  is  best  for  the  table  ;  and 
by  observing  the  quantity  of  produce  in  each  hill,  you  may 
form  a  pretty  good  estimate  relative  to  the  productiveness  of 
each  sort.  In  that  way  you  may  introduce  new  varieties  of 
potatoes,  and  supply  yourself  and  neighbours,  and  eventually 
the  market,  with  potatoes  of  a  quality  much  superior  to  any 
of  the  worn-out  and  degenerate  kinds  which  are  now  to  be 
found.  The  subject  is  of  importance,  and  the  man  who  will 
introduce  new  and  improved  sorts  of  potatoes,  will  deserve 
but  little  less  of  his  country  than  he  who  improves  our 
breeds  of  domestic  animals. 


COTTON.  [Gossypium.)  There  are  many  varieties  of 
this  plant,  all  of  which  are  natives  of  warm  climates,  but 
only  four  are   cultivated.     In   Georgia   and  South  Carolina 


264  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

two  kinds  are  planted.  One  grows  on  the  upland,  has  a 
short  staple,  with  green  seed.  Another  has  black  seed,  and 
is  cultivated  on  the  islands  near  the  coast. 

Pierce  Butler,  Esq.,  a  successful  cultivator,  has  given  the 
following  directions  for  raising  this  article  : 

"  If  the  land  has  been  recently  cleared,  or  has  long  re- 
mained fallow,  turn  it  up  deep  in  winter  ;  and  in  the  first 
week  in  March  bed  it  up  in  the  following  manner.  Form 
twenty-five  beds  in  one  hundred  and  five  square  feet  of  land; 
(being  the  space  alloted  to  each  laborer  for  a  day's  work  ;) 
this  leaves  about  four  feet  two  and  one  half  inches  from  the 
centre  of  one  bed  to  the  centre  of  the  next.  The  beds 
should  be  three  feet  wide,  flat  in  the  middle.  About  the 
15th  of  March,  in  latitude  from  twenty-nine  to  thirty  degrees, 
the  cultivator  should  commence  sowing,  or,  as  it  is  general- 
ly termed,  planting.  The  seed  should  be  well  scattered  in 
open  trenches,  made  in  the  centre  of  the  beds,  and  covered. 
The  proportion  of  seed  is  one  bushel  to  one  acre  ;  this  al- 
lows for  accidents  occasioned  by  worms  or  night  chills.  The 
cotton  should  be  well  weeded  by  hoes  once  every  twelve 
days  till  blown,  and  even  longer  if  there  is  grass,  observing 
to  hoe  up,  that  is,  lo  the  cotton,  till  it  pods,  and  hoe  down 
when  the  cotton  is  blown,  in  order  to  check  the  growth  of 
the  plant.  From  the  proportion  of  seed  mentioned,  the  cot- 
ton plants  will  come  up  plentifully,  too  much  so  to  suffer  all 
to  remain.  They  should  be  thinned  moderately  at  each  hoe- 
ing. When  the  plants  have  got  strength  and  growth,  which 
may  be  about  the  third  hoeing,  to  disregard  worms  and  bear 
drought,  they  should  be  thinned,  according  to  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  from  six  inches  to  near  two  feet  between  the  stocks 
or  plants.  In  rich  river  grounds,  the  beds  should  be  from 
five  to  six  feet  apart,  measuring  from  centre  to  centre  ;  and 
the  cotton  plants,  when  out  of  the  Avay  of  the  worms,  from 
two  to  three  feet  apart.  It  is  advisable  to  top  cotton  once 
or  twice  in  low  grounds,  and  also  to  remove  the  suckers. 
The  latter  end  of  July  is  generally  considered  a  proper  time 
for  topping.  Gypsum  may  be  used  with  success  on  cotton 
lands  not  near  the  sea.  In  river  grounds  draining  is  proper  ; 
yet  these  lands  should  not  be  kept  too  dry.  In  tide  lands  it 
is  beneficial  to  let  the  water  flow  over  the  land  without  re- 
taining it.  In  river  lands  a  change  of  crops  is  necessary. 
From°actual  experiment  it  has  been  proved,  that  river  tide 
lands,  having  the  preceding  year  had  rice  sown  on  them, 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST. 


265 


yielded  much  more  cotton  the  succeeding  year  than  they 
would  have  afTorded  by  a  continuation  of  cotton 

"  The  mere  growing  of  cotton  is  but  a  part  of  the  care  of 
the  planter  ;  very  much  depends  on  classing  and  cleansino-  it 
for  market,  after  it  has  been  housed.  Sorting  it  before"  it 
goes  to  the  jennies,  moteing  and  removing  any  yellow  par- 
ticles, are  essential  to  assure  a  preference  at  a  common 
market  of  competition." 


TOBACCO.  (Mcotiana.)  This  plant  is  named  from  To- 
bago, one  of  the  Caribbee  islands.  It  was  first  introduced 
into  England  by  the  famous  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  from 
thence  it  spread  over  the  other  parts  of  Europe 

In  order  to  raise  the  young  plants,  it  is  recommended  to 
burn  over  the  surface  of  a  piece  of  ground  earlv  in  the 
spring,  rake  it  well,  and  sow  the  seeds.  When  the  plants 
have  acquired  leaves  the  size  of  a  quarter  of  a  dollar  they 
are  fit  for  transplanting.  They  require  a  dry,  light  rich 
soil,  made  mellow  by  ploughing,  and  folding  is  also  advised 
IJr.  JJeane  observes,  that,  the  common  way  of  raising  to- 
bacco in  cow-pens  and  barn-yards  is  detestable.  The  ta^te 
of  such  tobacco  is  intolerable.  Transplant  the  youna  seed- 
lings when  the  ground  is  wet,  as  you  would  cabbage ''plants 
Set  them  about  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  weed  them 
as  you  would  growing  cabbages.  Destroy  the  large  green 
worms,  which  are  apt  to  infest  this  crop. 

When  the  plants  have  grown  about  three  feet  high  a  little 
less  or  more,  as  they  may  be  more  or  less  thrifty,  their  tops 
should  be  broken  or  cut  ofl^,  excepting  those  designed  for 
seed,  which  should  be  the  largest.  The  tops  should  be  taken 
ofl:-  so  early  in  the  summer  as  to  allow  time  for  the  upper 
leaves  to  grow  to  the  same  size  as  the  lower  ones  Of  this 
time  the  cuhivator  must  judge  from  circumstances,  previous 
observations,  or  the  advice  of  some  person  accustimed  to 
raismg  tobacco.  All  the  plants  should  be  topped  at  the 
same  time  whatever  may  be  their  height,  that  they  may 
ripen  together,  and  produce  leaves  nearly  of  the  same  size 
and  thickness.  The  suckers  which  shoot  out  from  the  foot- 
sta  ks  of  the  leaves  should  also  be  broken  or  pinched  off"  as 
last  as  they  appear. 

The  ripeness  of  tobacco  is  known  by  small  dusky  spots 
appearing   on  ^the   leaves.     The   plants  should  then  be^cut 


266  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

near  the  roots,  on  the  morning  of  a  day  of  sunshine,  and 
should  lie  singly  to  wither.  When  sufficiently  withered,  the 
plants  should  be  laid  in  close  heaps  under  cover  to  sweat, 
forty-eight  hours  or  more.  After  this,  they  should  be  hung 
up  under  cover  to  dry.  This  may  be  done,  by  running  two 
stalks  on  the  sharp  ends  of  a  stick  about  eight  inches  long, 
and  suspending  them  across  a  pole  about  sixteen  inches 
apart,  in  a  pretty  tight  apartment.  As  the  plants  become 
dry  they  may  be  placed  nearer  to  each  other,  to  make  room 
for  more,  if  necessary.  When  they  have  hung  till  there  is 
no  greenness  in  the  leaves,  and  at  a  time  vvhen  the  air  is 
damp,  the  leaves  should  be  stripped  off  the  stalks,  tied  up  in 
hands,  and  packed  away  in  chests  or  casks,  well  pressed 
down,  and  kept  in  a  dry  place,  not  in  a  cellar,  which  would 
soon  spoil  the  tobacco. 

The  use  of  tobacco  for  chewing  and  snuffing  is  uncleanly, 
unwholesome,  and  becoming  unfashionable  with  the  more 
respectable  parts  of  the  community.  The  habit  of  chewing 
it,  however,  is  not  easily  broken.  A  writer  for  the  "  Nation- 
al Intelligencer,"  with  the  signature  "J.  B.,"  states,  in 
substance,  that  he  was  suffering  under  a  pulmonary  com- 
plaint, supposed  to  be  brought  on  by  chewing  tobacco,  and 
that  by  making  a  substitute  of  slippery  elm  bark,  and  swal- 
lowing the  juice,  he  at  once  got  rid  of  his  disorder  and  his 
propensity  to  chew  this  poisonous  plant.  The  dust  or  pow- 
der of  tobacco,  thrown  over  beds  where  plants  are  just 
coming  up,  preserves  them  from  worms.  It  is  said,  also, 
that  a  few  tobacco  plants  set  out  among  cabbages  and  tur- 
nips, the  tobacco  plants  about  one  rod  apart,  will  save  the 
cabbages  and  turnips  from  insects. 

M.  M'Louvin,  in  Loudon's  Magazine,  observes  as  fol- 
lows :  "  I  procure  from  the  tobacconists  a  liquor  expressed 
from  tobacco,  to  every  gallon  of  which  I  add  five  gallons  of 
water  ;  this  mixture,  with  Read's  garden  syringe,  I  sprinkle 
over  the  trees,  putting  it  on  the  finest  rose,  and  being  careful 
to  wet  all  the  leaves  ;  this  operation  is  performed  only  in  the 
hottest  sunshine,  as  the  effect  is  then  much  greater  than 
when  the  weather  is  dull.  In  this  manner  I  have,  with  five 
gallons  of  liquor,  reduced  as  above  stated,  cleaned  seven- 
tepn  peach  and  nectarine  trees,  twelve  of  which  average 
seventeen  feet  in  length  and  twelve  in  height.  The  black 
glutinous  insect,  provincially  called  blight,  so  destructive  to 
the  cherry  trees,  is  destroyed  in  the  same  way,  with  equal 
facility.      I  have  also  found  that  the  grubs  which  attack  the 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  267 

apricot  may  be  destroyed  almost  instantly  by  immersing  the 
leaves  infested  in  this  liquor. 

"  When  trees  have  got  so  bad  that  their  leaves  are  much 
curled,  some  of  the  flies,  being  protected  within  the  curl,  will 
escape:  in  this  case  more  force  must  be  applied  to  the 
syringe,  and  in  a  day  or  two  the  trees  should  be  looked  over 
again,  and  whatever  part  of  the  leaves  has  not  been  wetted 
should  be  washed  with  a  painter's  brush  ;  but  a  careful  per- 
son will  render  this  process  unnecessary  by  taking  them  in 
time." 

Instead  of  liquor  from  the  tobacconist,  which  may  not  al- 
ways and  in  all  situations  be  easily  procured,  a  strong  de- 
coction of  the  stems  or  damaged  leaves  may  be  a  cheap  sub- 
stitute. The  uses  of  tobacco  in  destroying  lice  on  cattle, 
ticks  on  sheep,  &c.  are  too  well  known  to  render  it  necessa- 
ry to  make  any  observations  on  this  application  of  a  plant 
which  seems  to  be  abhorred  by  every  animated  being  but 
man  and  the  tobacco  worm.  But  a  quantity  of  tobacco 
ought  to  be  grown  by  every  cultivator,  to  enable  him  to 
wage  successful  war  with  insects. 


PLOUGHING,  is  the  most  important  of  agricultural  ope- 
rations. On  the  manner  in  which  this  is  performed  depends 
all  the  subsequent  operations  of  tillage  on  the  same  land. 
A  large  volume  might  well  be  written  on  this  subject,  but 
we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  practical  hints,  expressed  as 
concisely  as  is  consistent  with  perspicuity. 

In  all  stiff',  heavy,  and  adhesive  soils,  that  are  much  dis- 
posed to  moisture,  it  should  be  a  common  rule  not  to  plough 
them  whilfe  wet  in  any  considerable  degree,  especially  if 
there  is  much  clay  in  their  composition.  When  such  land 
is  ploughed  wet,  the  particles  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
apt  to  cake,  or  run  together  into  hard  lumps,  which  require 
much  trouble  and  labor  to  reduce  to  a  fine  state.  Besides, 
much  injury  is  produced  by  the  treading  of  the  team,  and 
greater  power  is  necessary  in  performing  the  operation. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  such  soils  are  ploughed  with  much 
difficulty  when  very  dry  ;  unless  before  the  ploughing  they 
were  in  a  state  of  tillage,  and  not  baked  or  bound  down  very 
hard.  To  break  up  grass  ground  composed  of  a  strong  loam, 
or  a  soil  in  which  there  is  clay  in  any  considerable  quantity, 
when  in  a  dry  state,  is  next  to  impossible.     You   might  al- 


268  THE   COMPLETE   PARMLR 

most  as  well  attempt  to  plough  up  a  brick  pavement  or  slate 
rock.  Green  sward  in  general  can  hardly  be  ploughed  too 
wet,  if  it  be  not  miry.  Marshy,  moory,  and  peaty  or  mossy 
descriptions  of  soil  should  in  general,  when  already  reduced 
to  a  state  of  tillage,  be  ploughed  when  the  season  is  dry. 

In  dry,  sandy,  and  perhaps  in  some  of  the  more  mellow 
kinds  of  loamy  soils,  the  business  of  ploughing  may  be  per- 
formed when  the  earth  is  in  a  state  of  considerable  moisture. 
But  very  dry  sandy  land,  whenever  the  weather  is  hot  and 
dry,  should  merely  be  stirred  in  such  a  way  as  may  be  ne- 
cessary to  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds  ;  otherwise  the 
great  exhalation  of  moisture  in  such  seasons  may  render 
them  too  dry  for  the  vigorous  vegetation  of  the  seeds  or 
plants  which  may  be  sown  or  growing  upon  them.  The 
cultivators  of  this  kind  of  soil  have,  therefore,  many  ad- 
vantages over  others  who  are  engaged  in  the  more  stiff  and 
heavy  sorts  of  land,  in  being  able  to  perform  the  various 
operations  of  arable  husbandry  with  much  less  strength  and 
expense  of  team,  and  by  being  much  less  interrupted  by  the 
wetness  of  the  seasons.  Stiff  clayey  soils,  which  are  al- 
ready under  the  plough,  may  be  beneficially  ploughed  in  dry 
weather,  and  it  is  said,  that  stirring  such  soils  in  a  dry  sea- 
son causes  them  to  imbibe  moisture,  but  in  sandy  soils  the 
opposite  result  is  produced  by  the  same  means. 

It  is  very  fashionable,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  very  correct 
to  recommend  deep  ploughing.  But  this  rule  has  a  great 
many  exceptions,  and  the  cultivator  who  should  be  governed 
by  it  without  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  pro- 
posed crops,  would  only  labor  hard  to  injure  his  land  and 
reduce  his  products. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  attend  to  what  some  writers  have 
observed,  respecting  the  dangers  and  disadvantages  which 
attend  ploughing  deep  without  regard  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil  and  other  circumstances.  It  is  observed  in  "  Dickson's 
Agriculture,"  that  "  though  deep  ploughing  has  been  recom- 
mended by  some  modern  writers,  upon  particular  kinds  of 
land,  where  the  bottom  and  top  were  of  two  opposite  quali- 
ties, and  neither  of  them  perfectly  good,  that  a  mixture  may 
sometimes  be  very  beneficial,  and  the  experiment  of  going 
below  the  common  depth  sometimes  answer  ;  but  that  when 
the  top  and  bottom  for  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  depth  con- 
sists of  the  same  soil,  it  is  not  believed  it  is  ever  worth  while 
to  exchange  the  upper  part,  which  has  been  enriched  for 
centuries  back,  for  a  part    less  rich,  merely  because  it   is 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  269 

more  fresh.  On  retentive  soils,  where  the  practice  of  loosen- 
ing them  to  some  depth  by  other  implements  is  omitted,  deep 
ploughing  is  however  extremely  necessary." 

In  an  "Essay  on  the  Best  Means  of  Converting  Grass 
Lands  into  Tillage,  by  James  Roper  Head,  Esq.,"  published 
in  "  Communications  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,"  it  is 
observed,  that  "  it  seems  reasonable  to  prefer  light  to  heavy 
ploughing  ;  because,  all  things  being  equal,  it  must  be  prefer- 
able to  have  a  small  depth  of  soil  to  cultivate  and  improve  ; 
and  inasmuch  as  the  fibres  of  grass  in  general  are  led  from 
the  upper  surface  of  the  earth  alone,  if  they  tind  sufficient 
pabulum,  all  that  lie  underneath  their  nourishment,  and  has 
been  with  much  labor  moved  by  the  plough,  is  like  a  stock 
in  trade,  which  requires  an  extra  capital,  unproductive  of 
interest. 

"I  have  endeavoured  by  all  means  to  search  into  the  na- 
ture of  sainfoin,  clover,  and  lucerne,  and  the  result  of  my 
opinion  has  been,  that  the  long  penetrating  tap-roots  of  these 
grasses  pierce  the  earth  in  search  of  moisture  only  ;  that  the 
tap-root  is  the  mere  syphon  and  duct  ;  that  the  branches  of 
the  crown  of  the  plant  are  fed  alone  by  the  upper  surface  of 
the  soil  ;  and  that  the  luxuriancy  of  their  produce  depends, 
not  upon  the  congeniality  of  the  bed  or  nidus  [nest]  of  the 
tap-root  itself,  but  on  the  congeniality  of  the  soil  of  the  up- 
per surface,  which  alone  feeds  and  furnishes  it  vegetation." 

An  article  in  "  Communications  to  the  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture," written  by  John  M.  Mardo,  Esq.,  contains  the  follow- 
ing statement  :  "  We  have  witnessed  instances  where  old 
pasture  lands  composed  of  a  gravelly  loam  were  broken  up 
in  the  spring  for  barley  by  trench  ploughing.  The  old 
sward  was  turned  into  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  and  a  dry 
subsoil  brought  to  the  surface  from  a  considerable  depth. 
The  crops  failed  entirely,  and  there  appeared  two  very  ob- 
vious reasons  for  the  failure  ;  first,  the  subsoil  brought  to 
the  surface  to  form  the  seed  bed  had  long  been  deprived  of 
the  ordinary  influence  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  rains  ; 
consequently  must  have  been  cold  and  infertile.  Secondly, 
the  dry  tenacious  sward  having  been  placed  half  broken 
under  the  seed  bed,  the  natural  moisture  of  the  ground,  as 
well  as  that  which  falls  in  rain,  was  speedily  and  habitually 
evaporated.  Unless  in  a  season  of  uncommon  moisture,  a 
crop  under  such  preparation  could  not  prosper." 

A  writer  in  the  "  General  Report  of  Scotland,"  Mr.  James 
Brownhill,  says  "Old  leas  [grass  grounds],  in  my  opinion, 
23* 


270  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

should  be  ploughed  if  posible  not  above  four  and  a  half 
inches  deep  by  eight  and  a  half  or  nine  inches  broad.  If  the 
old  lea  be  a  dry  soil,  it  will  plough  very  well  with  those 
dimensions  ;  if  it  be  ploughed  deeper  it  must  also  be  plough- 
ed broader,  as  the  furrows  will  not  ply  close  to  one  another, 
unless  you  have  breadth  in  proportion  to  the  depth." 

Sir  John  Sinclair  speaks  highly  of  the  advantages  of  deep 
ploughing,  in  some  circumstances  and  for  some  crops,  but 
says,  "  it  is  a  general  rule  never  to  plough  so  deep  as  to  pene- 
trate below  the  soil  that  was  formerly  manured  and  cultivat- 
ed, excepting  upon  fallow,  and  then  only  when  you  have 
plenty  of  lime  or  dung  to  add  to  and  improve  the  new  soil." 
The  farmers  of  Flanders,  which  is  said  to  be  the  best  cul- 
tivated part  of  Europe,  gradually  deepen  their  soil  by 
ploughing  or  digging  up  fresh  earth  as  their  manure  in- 
creases. Mr.  Authur  Young  likewise  observes,  that  in  poor 
hungry  soils  some  proportion  ought  to  be  observed  between 
the  depth  of  a  ploughing  and  the  quantity  of  manure  annual- 
ly spread.  The  same  writer  informs  us,  that  the  depth  of 
ploughing  in  various  towns  of  England,  on  an  average,  in 
sandy  soils,  was  four  inches  ;  in  loamy  soils  four  and  three 
quarters,  and  in  clayey  soils  three  inches  and  a  half. 

Disputes  have  arisen  among  farmers  in  this  country  and 
in  Europe  relative  to  the  best  manner  of  laving  the  furrow 
slice.  Some  contend  for  turning  the  furrow  slice  completely 
over,  and  laying  it  quite  flat  ;  but  others  allege,  that  it  is 
most  advantageous  to  place  each  slice  in  such  a  manner  that 
its  outer  edge  may  extend  a  little  over  the  inner  edge  of  the 
furrow  which  was  drawn  ne.xt  before  it.  "  In  several  districts 
in  England  it  is  usual  to  lay  the  furrow  slice  quite  flat,  and 
this  is  particularly  the  case  where  there  are  no  ridges  ; 
but  in  Northumberland,  and  in  Scotland,  a  contrary  system 
is  adopted.  It  is  founded  on  this  idea,  that  as  two  of  the 
principal  objects  in  ploughing  are,  to  expose  as  much  as  pos- 
sible to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  to  lay  the  lasid, 
so  that  the  harrows  may,  in  the  most  effectual  manner,  raise 
mould  to  cover  the  seed  ;  these  objects  are  most  effectually 
accomplished  by  ploughing  land  of  every  description  with  a 
furrow  slice  about  seven  inches  deep,  and  which,  if  about 
ten  inches  and  a  half  broad,  raises  the  furrow  slice,  with  a 
proper  shoulder,  forming  the  angle  forty-five,  the  point  which 
ought  to  be  referred  to  when  determining  between  the  merits 
of  different  specimens  of  ploughing.  For  that  purpose,  the 
depth  of  the  furrow  should,  in  general,  bear   a  due  propor- 


AND  UURAL  ECONOMIST.  271 

tion  to  the  breadth,  that  is,  about  two-thirds,  or  as  six  inches 
deep  is  to  nine  broad.  This  is  the  general,  if  not  the  univer- 
sal opinion  of  the  Scotch  Farmers."*  The  angle  forty-five 
is  strongly  recommended  in  "  Bay  ley's  Essay  on  the  Con- 
struction of  the  Plough,"  in  his  "Durham  Report,"  and  in 
"  Brown's  Treatise  on  Rural  Affairs."  In  the  southern  coun- 
ties of  England,  however,  they  generally  prefer  to  turn  the 
furrow  quite  flat,  or  horizontal  ;  and  allege,  as  a  reason  for 
that  practice,  that  the  weeds,  grass,  &c.  ploughed  under,  can- 
not well  be  smothered  or  withered  unless  the  roots  are  turn- 
ed completely  bottom  upwards,  and  the  turf  covered  so 
closely  as  to  have  no  communication  with  the  atmosphere. 

In  Flanders,  land  is  frequently  cultivated  by  an  implement 
called  the  binot,  which  is  highly  esteemed.  By  this  instru- 
ment the  land  is  not  turned  over,  as  by  the  plough,  and  the 
weeds  buried  ;  but  the  soil  is  elevated  and  pressed  into  small 
ridges,  and  thus  is  better  exposed  to  the  beneficial  influence 
of  the  winter  frosts,  and  becomes  much  sooner  dry  in  spring 
than  when  the  land  is  turned  over  perfectly  flat.  When  fur- 
row slices  are  set  up  edgewise  by  a  plough,  they  become 
small  thin  ridges,  are  more  easily  pervaded  by  frost,  and  are 
in  a  situation  to  attract  more  of  the  fertilizing  influences  of 
the  atmosphere,  than  when  they  are  turned  over  so  as  to  lie 
in  a  horizontal  position.  Perhaps  this  mode  of  ploughing 
land  may  be  advantageous  in  stiff,  hard  soils,  where  several 
ploughings  are  necessary  to  prepare  for  the  reception  of  the 
seed.  If  land  of  this  description  is  broken  up  in  the  fall  or 
summer  preceding  the  sowing  or  planting  of  the  seed,  and 
cross-ploughing  in  the  spring  is  made  use  of,  preparatory  to 
putting  m  the  seed,  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  the  "feather 
edged  ploughing,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  (in  which  the 
furrow  slices  are  not  laid  so  flat  as  to  exclude  the  air  from 
between  and  from  the  lower  part  of  the  furrow  slices,)  is  to 
be  preferred.  "  Ploughing  previous  to  winter  setting  in  is  of 
great  use  to  clays,  or  stiff  lands,  exposing  the  surface  to  the 
frost,  which  mellows  and  reduces  it  in  a  manner  infinitely 
superior  to  what  could  be  accomplished  by  all  the  operations 
of  man."f  If,  then,  exposing  the  surface  of  stiff  soils  to 
the  frost  is  of  great  advantage,  the  more  surface  there  is  ex- 
posed the  greater  the   advantage  ;   and  if  the  furrow  slices 


*  Code  of  Agriculture. 

t  See  Husbandry  of  Scotland,  Vol.    I.   p.  229,   and  Vol.    XI,  Appendix, 
p.  26. 


272  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

are  set  partly  or  entirely  on  their  edges  there  will  be,  as  be- 
fore intimated,  more  surface  exposed  than  there  would  be  if 
they  were  laid  perfectly  flat.  And  if  they  were  turned  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  form  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  the 
outer  edge  of  the  furrow  resting  on  the  inner  edge  of  that 
which  immediately  preceded  it,  there  would  be  but  little 
chance  for  the  weeds  or  grass  to  grow  up  between  the  fur- 
rows, which  may  be  the  case  when  the  slices  are  set  per- 
pendicularly, or  nearly  so,  on  their  edges.  There  will  like- 
wise always  be  a  cavity  under  the  edges  of  the  furrow  slices, 
containing  stagnant  and  sometimes  putrescent  air,  which 
will  enrich  the  soil.  Moreover,  if  ridge-ploaghing  is  at  all 
advantageous,  we  cannot  see  why  a  mode  of  ploughing 
which  makes  a  ridge  of  every  furrow  slice;  or  at  most  a  ridge 
by  turning  the  edge  of  one  furrow  slice  on  the  edge  of  its 
it7imediate  predecessor,  should  not  be  likewise  of  advantage. 
Besides,  by  these  modes  of  ploughing  you  form  a  covered 
or  open  drain  or  hollow  place  between  the  furrows,  which, 
by  carrying  off  superfluous  water,  will  render  the  soil  fit  for 
tillage  earlier  in  the  spring  than  would  be  possible  if  every 
furrow  slice  was  laid  flat  as  it  was  turned  upside  down.  The 
harrow  will  also  more  readily  take  hold  of  a  .soil  where  the 
furrow  slices  form  little  ridges  or  protuberances,  and  thus  a 
proper  mould  will  be  procured  for  the  covering  of  the  seeds, 
or  earthing  up  plants  in  a  growing  crop.  And  if  there  is 
danger  of  the  lands  lying  too  loose  and  hollow,  repeated 
harrowing,  and  rolling  it  with  a  heavy  roller  after  sowing, 
will  furnish  a  remedy. 

Dry  sandy  soils,  such  as  ought  not  to  be  ploughed  in 
ridges,  should  be  turned  over  completely,  and  be  laid  and 
kept  level  as  possible.  Such  soils,  if  rendered  loose,  and 
laid  light  by  cultivation,  will  be  robbed  of  their  fertilizing 
particles  as  well  by  rain  as  by  sunshine.  In  other  words, 
they  are  liable  to  suffer  by  washing,  by  scorching,  and  by 
too  much  draining.  They  do  not  need  to  be  made  any  light- 
er, by  "  feather-edged  ploughing,"  or  setting  the  furrow 
slices  edgewise,  being  too  light  under  ordinary  cultivation. 
It  is  therefore  "  a  great  advantage  to  such  soils  to  fold  sheep, 
or  to  consume  the  crops  of  turnips  upon  the  ground  where 
they  are  raised.  These  practices  greatly  contribute  to  the 
improvement  of  such  soils,  not  only  by  the  dung  and  urine 
thus  deposited,  but  by  the  consolidation  and  firmness  of  tex- 
ture which  the  treading  of  sheep  occasions."* 

*  Code  of  Ajiriculture. 


AND  RURAL  ECOXOMI^T.  273 

On  the  whole,  although  it  would  not  he  possible  to  give 
general  rules  not  liable  to  many  exceptions,  on  the  shape 
and  position  of  the  furrow  slice,  which  should  be  cut  and 
disposed  of  according  to  the  views  of  the  cultivator,  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  the  proposed  crop,  &c.,  we  are  in- 
clined to  believe  that  Sir  John  Sinclair's  maxim  will  apply 
to  most  of  our  New  England  uplands.  That  eminent  agri- 
culturist says,  that  "  the  point  which  ought  to  be  referred 
to,  when  determining  between  the  merits  of  different  speci- 
mens of  ploughing,  is  the  angle  of  forty-five  degrees." 
That  is,  other  things  being  equal,  the  nearer  the  furrow 
slice  comes  to  forming  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with 
the  horizon,  the  more  perfect  the  specimen  of  ploughing. 
But  another  maxim  of  the  same  writer  is  equally  worthy  of 
attention.  "  Dry  soils  being  deficient  in  moisture  ought 
to  be  tilled  flat,  as  any  sort  of  drainings  which  the  fur- 
rows might  afford  would  be  prejudicial  rather  than  advan- 
tageous. In  Kent,  dry  land  is  left  as  level  as  if  it  were 
dug  with  a  spade.  The  moisture  is  thus  equally  diffused, 
and  retained  under  the  surface  of  the  earth." 

The  following  is  extracted  and  abridged  from  an  address 
delivered  before  the  Middlesex  Society  of  Husbandmen  and 
Manufacturers  ;  by  Elias  Phinney,  Esq. 

"  In  May,  1829,  the  field  having  lain  three  years  to  grass, 
and  the  crop  of  hay  so  light  as  to  be  worth  not  more  than 
the  expense  of  making,  with  a  view  of  ascertaining  the 
quantity  of  vegetable  matter  upon  the  surface,  I  took  a  sin- 
gle foot  square  of  green  sward,  and  after  separating  the 
roots  and  tops  of  the  grasses  from  the  loam  and  vegetable 
mould,  it  was  found  on  weighing  to  contain  nine  ounces  of 
clear  vegetable  substance  ;  giving,  at  that  rate,  over  twelve 
and  a  quarter  tons  to  the  acre.  This  convinced  me  of  the 
importance  of  taking  some  course  by  which  this  valuable 
treasure  might  be  turned  to  good  account.  That  a  great 
part  of  this  mass  of  vegetable  matter  is  exposed  to  useless 
waste,  by  the  usual  mode  of  ploughing,  cross-ploughing,  and 
harrowing,  must  be  obvious  to  any  one.  In  order  therefore 
to  secure  this,  as  well  as  the  light  vegetable  mould  at  and 
near  the  surface,  which  is  liable  to  waste  from  the  same 
causes,  I  had  two  acres  of  the  green  sward  of  this  field 
turned  over  with  the  plough,  as  smoothly  as  possible.  After 
removing  the  outside  furrow  slices  into  the  centre  of  the 
plough  land,  and  thereby  effecting  the  double  purpose  of 
covering   the    vacant  space   in  the   middle   and    preventing 


274  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

ridges  at  the  sides  and  ends,  the  field  was  rolled  hard,  with 
a  loaded  roller,  by  which  the  uneven  parts  of  the  furrows 
were  pressed  down  and  the  whole  made  smooth.  It  was  then 
harrowed  lengthwise  the  furrows,  with  a  horse  harrow,  but 
so  lightly  as  not  to  disturb  the  sod.  Twenty  cart-loads  of 
compost  manure,  made  by  mixing  two  parts  of  loam  or  peat 
mud  with  one  of  stable  dung,  were  then  spread  upon  each 
acre.  It  was  then  harrowed  again,  as  before,  and  the  poor- 
er part  of  the  soil,  which  had  been  turned  up,  and  remained 
upon  the  surface,  was  thereby  mixed  with  the  compost  ma- 
nure. Corn  was  then  planted  in  drills  upon  the  furrow,  the 
rows  being  at  the  usual  distance  and  parallel  with  the  fur- 
rows. At  hoeing  time,  the  surface  was  stirred  by  running 
a  light  plough  between  the  rows,  but  not  so  deep  at  this  or 
the  subsequent  hoeing  as  to  disturb  the  sod.  What  Mr. 
Lorrain  calls  the  '  savage  practice  '  of  hilling  up  the  corn 
was  cautiously  avoided.  As  the  season  advanced,  I  care- 
fully watched  the  progress  of  my  corn-field.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  season  it  did  not  exhibit  a  very  promising  ap- 
pearance ;  but  as  soon  as  the  roots  had  extended  into  the 
enriching  matter  beneath,  and  began  to  expand  in  the  de- 
composing sward,  which  had  now  become  mellow,  and  more 
minutely  divided  by  the  fermentation  of  the  confined  veg- 
etable substances  beneath  than  it  possibly  could  have  been 
by  plough  or  hoe,  the  growth  became  vigorous,  and  the 
crop,  in  the  opinion  of  those  who  examined  the  field,  not  less 
than  seventy  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre.  As  soon  as  the 
corn  was  harvested,  the  stubble  was  loosened  up  by  running 
a  light  horse  plough  lengthwise  through  the  rows,  the  sur- 
face then  smoothed  with  a  bush-harrow,  and  one  bushel  of 
rye,  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  herd's  grass  and  red  top 
seed,  to  the  acre  was  then  sowed,  the  ground  again  harrow- 
ed and  rolled.  The  crop  of  rye  was  harvested  in  July  fol- 
lowing, and  the  two  acres  yielded  sixty-nine  and  a  half 
bushels  of  excellent  grain,  and  over  five  tons  of  straw.  The 
grass  sowed  with  the  rye  took  well,  and  the  present  season 
I  mowed,  what  those  who  secured  the  crop  judged  to  be, 
two  and  a  half  tons  of  the  very  best  of  hay  from  each  acre. 
"  Thus,  with  one  ploughing,  with  the  aid  of  twenty  cart- 
loads of  compost  manure  to  the  acre,  I  have  obtained  two 
crops  of  grain,  and  stocked  the  land  down  to  grass." 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  27a 

HAY  MAKING.  It  is  a  matter  of  much  importance  to 
the  husbandman  that  he  should  take  time  by  the  foretop 
during  the  season  for  making  hay.  He  must  drive  his  busi- 
ness instead  of  being  driven  by  it.  Indolence  or  improper 
management  in  hay-time  will  soon  give  a  sorry  complexion 
to  a  farmer's  affairs.  A  day  or  two  lost  or  misemployed 
while  the  sun  shines,  and  your  grass  suffers  for  lack  of  the 
scythe  and  the  rake,  or  your  grain  is  going  back  into  the 
ground,  while  the  sickle  is  rusting  on  a  peg  behind  the  door, 
and  its  owner  is  asleep  or  gone  a  journey,  may  be  the  means 
of  introducing  Mr.  Deputy  Sheriff  on  your  premises,  who 
may  do  more  harm  than  a  crop  of  thistles  or  a  host  of  Hes- 
sian flies. 

It  is  best,  generally  speaking,  to  cut  your  very  heaviest 
grass  first  of  all;  and  if  it  be  lodged,  or  in  danger  of  lodging, 
or  the  lower  leaves  and  bottom  of  the  stalks  are  beginning 
to  turn  yellow,  although  the  grass  is  hardly  headed,  and  ap- 
pears not  to  have  obtained  more  than  two-thirds  of  its  growth, 
you  had  better  begin  upon  it.  But  when  you  have  help 
enough,  and  your  grass  stands  up  well,  you  will  do  best  to 
wait  till  the  blossom  is  fully  formed,  and  is  beginning  to 
turn  brown.  Clover  is  the  most  critical  grass,  and  requires 
the  most  attention.  "  In  all  cases,"  says  Sir  John  Sinclair, 
"  clover  ought  to  be  mown  before  the  seed  is  formed  "  *  that 
the  full  juice  and  nourishment  of  the  plants  may  be  retained 
in  the  hay.  By  the  adoption  of  this  system  the  hay  is  cut 
in  a  better  season,  it  can  be  more  easily  secured,  and  is 
much  more  valuable.  Nor  is  the  strength  of  the  plant  lodged 
in  the  seed,  which  is  often  lost. 

"  After  being  cut,  the  clover  should  remain  in  the  swath 
till  it  is  dried  about  two-thirds  of  its  thickness.  It  is  then 
not  tedded  or  strewed,  but  turned  over,  either  by  the  hands, 
or  the  heads  of  hay  rakes.  If  turned  over  in  the  morning 
of  a  dry  day,  it  may  be  cocked  in  the  evening.     The  hay  is 

*  It  may  not  be  amiss,  however,  to  state,  in  this  place,  that  a^ricultniists 
do  not  altogether  agree  on  this  point.  In  "  Memoirs  of  the  New  York  Board 
of  Agriculture,"  (Vol.  II.  p.  30,)  it  is  asserted,  that  "  all  the  grasses  are  more 
nutritious  if  not  mowed  until  the  seed  is  fully  grown.  It  should  not  be  entirely 
ripened,  however."  The  "  Farmer's  Assistant  "  tells  us,  that  "  the  best  time 
for  cutting  herd's  grass  [timothy],  where  but  one  crop  is  cut  in  the  season,  is 
when  the  seeds  of  the  grass  are  fully  formed,  but  before  they  have  become  fully 
ripe;  but  as  farmers  cannot  all  cut  their  hay  in  a  day  or  two,  it  is  necessary 
that  they  should  begin  before  this  time,  tiiat  they  may  not  end  too  long  after  it. 
The  same  time  is  also  proper  for  cutting  clover;  or  rather  when  a  part  of  the 
heads  begin  to  turn  brown.  Foul  meadow  or  bird  grass  may  be  cut  much 
later,  without  being  hurt  by  long  standing." 


276  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

as  little  shaken  or  scattered  about  afterwards  as  possible  ; 
and  if  the  weather  is  good,  after  remaining  two  or  three 
days  in  the  cock,  it  may  be  carted  into  the  stack." 

It  is  asserted  by  the  "  Farmer's  Guide,"  that  "  grass  will 
not  thrive  well  that  is  not  mown  quite  close  ;  and  the  loss  in 
the  crop  where  this  is  not  done  is  very  considerable,  as  one 
inch  at  the  bottom  iveighs  more  than  several  at  the  top." 

The  fore  part  of  the  season  for  making  hay  is,  we  believe, 
usually  attended  with  less  rain  than  the  latter  part.  The 
days,  too,  are  longer,  and  the  dews  are  less  copious.  Far- 
mers will,  therefore,  find  additional  motives  from  these  cir- 
cumstances to  industry  and  exertion  in  early  hay-time.  Be- 
sides, if  haying  is  protracted  till  harvest  commences,  the 
business  of  one  season  presses  on  that  of  another,  and  some 
crops  will  be  nearly  or  quite  spoiled  in  consequence  of  not 
being  gathered  in  due  time.  The  forehanded  and  indus- 
trious farmer  thus  possesses  great  advantages  over  one 
whom  indolence  or  poverty  induces  to  procrastinate  the  in- 
dispensable labors  of  his  vocation. 

Great  advantages  would  result  to  the  farmer,  particularly 
in  haying  and  harvesting,  if  he  could  form  an  estimate  of  the 
weather  so  as  to  be  able  to  foresee  with  tolerable  accuracy 
what  would  be  its  state  for  a  few  days,  or  even  for  twenty- 
four  hours  subsequent  to  the  period  of  observation.  Dr. 
Jenner's  versified  statement  of  "  Signs  of  Rain,"  (published 
in  the  ^ew  England  Farmer,  Vol.  II.  p.  288,)  may  prove 
useful  for  this  purpose,  and  the  rhymes  may  assist  the  mem- 
ory. A  certain  French  philosopher,  some  years  since,  pub- 
lished an  article,  in  which  he  asserted,  in  substance,  that  the 
web  of  a  common  spider  is  a  sure  index  of  the  state  of  the 
air  for  twelve  or  fourteen  days  to  come.  If  the  weather  is 
to  be  fair  and  calm,  the  principal  thread  will  be  spun  to  a 
great  length;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  weather  is  to  be  stormy 
and  boisterous,  the  thread  will  be  short  and  thick  ;  and  if 
the  spider  is  seen  to  repair  the  damages  its  slender  thread 
may  sustain,  you  may  anticipate  pleasant  weather  for  many 
days.  So  says  the  philosopher,  but  we  cannot  vouch  for  the 
accuracy  of  his  saying.  It  may,  however,  not  be  amiss  for 
the  man  of  observation  to  pay  some  attention  to  this  sub- 
ject ;  for  we  know  that  the  instinct  of  an  insect  is  often  more 
to  be  depended  on  than  the  researches  of  science. 

In  this  climate,  a  southerly  wind,  if  it  continues  stedfast 
for  forty-eight  hours  is  generally  followed  by  rain.  If  the 
wind,  however,  shifts  its  course  with  the  sun,  or,  as  sailors 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  277 

phrase  it,  goes  round  with  the  sun,  in  the  morning  blowing 
from  the  south,  or  east  of  south,  and  changing  westerly  as 
the  sun  advances,  it  generally  indicates  dry  weather.  If  the 
wind  shitls  in  a  course  opposite  to  the  apparent  course  of 
the  sun,  rain  commonly  succeeds.  If  the  wind  continues 
southerly,  and  blows  briskly  through  the  night,  it  commonly, 
as  the  phrase  is,  "blows  up  rain."  This  effect  of  a  south 
wind  in  this  country  may  be  thus  accounted  for.  A  souther- 
ly wind  is  a  current  of  air  which  has  its  origin  in  warmer 
latitudes  than  those  in  which  we  are  situated.  This  current 
in  passing  over  the  ocean  imbibes  or  takes  up  as  much  water 
as  air  of  its  temperature  can  hold  in  solution.  Passing  into 
higher  or  colder  latitudes  the  air  of  the  current  parts  with  a 
portion  of  its  heat  or  caloric,  and  cannot  retain  so  much 
water  as  it  held  in  its  outset.  Clouds  or  vapors  are  there- 
fore formed,  and  the  excess  of  moisture  is  deposited  in  mist, 
rain,  hail,  or  snow,  according  to  circumstances,  the  season, 
&c.  On  the  contrary,  a  northerly  wind,  coming  from  a  com- 
paratively cold  latitude,  acquires  caloric  as  it  advances,  and 
with  that  acquisition  its  capacity  for  holding  water  in  solu- 
tion is  increased.  Therefore  a  northerly  wind  is  a  drijing 
wind,  and  its  predominance  soon  dissipates  clouds  and  intro- 
duces fair  weather. 

But  to  come  down  from  the  clouds  to  matters  more  within 
the  reach  of  the  reader.  It  has  been  often  recommended  by 
writers  on  agriculture  to  cart  hay,  particularly  clover,  before 
the  stalks  are  dry  ;  and  either  to  put  it  up  witli  alternate 
layers  of  straw,  or  to  salt  it  at  the  rate  of  from  half  to  one 
bushel  of  salt  to  the  ton. 

"  Salt  hay  in  this  country  has  usually  been  hurt  by  lying 
too  long  in  the  swaths.  The  method  in  which  I  have  treated 
it  for  several  years,  is,  to  cock  it  the  next  day  after  it  is  cut, 
and  carry  it  in,  without  delaying  more  than  one  day,  and 
put  a  layer  of  some  kind  of  dry  straw  between  load  and  load 
of  it  in  the  mow,  to  prevent  its  taking  damage  by  over-heat- 
ing. The  straw  contracts  so  much  of  its  moisture  and  salt- 
ness,  that  the  cattle  will  eat  it  very  freely  ;  and  the  hay  is 
far  better  than  that  made  in  the  common  way."* 

The  making  of  herbage  plants  [such  as  clover,  lucerne, 
sainfoin  burnet,  &c.]  into  hay,  is  a  process  somewhat  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  making  hay  from  natural  grasses.  As 
soon  as  the  swath  is  thoroughly  dry  above,  it  is  gently  turn- 

*  Deane's  New  England  Farmer. 

24 


278  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

ed  over  (not  tedded  nor  scattered)  without  breaking  it. 
Sometimes  this  is  done  bv  the  hand,  or  by  a  small  fork  ; 
and  some  farmers  are  so  anxious  to  prevent  the  swath  from 
being  broken,  that  they  will  not  permit  the  use  of  the  rake 
shaft.  Another  writer  observes,  that  the  practice  of  the  best 
English,  Flemish,  and  French  farmers,  is  to  expose  the  hay 
as  little  as  possible  to  the  sun.  It  is  carried  in  dry,  but  pre- 
serves its  green  color  ;  and  we  see  hay  of  one  or  two  years 
old  in  their  market,  of  so  bright  a  green  color  that  we  could 
scarcely  conceive  it  to  be  cured.  Yet  they  are  in  the  prac- 
tice of  preserving  it  for  years,  and  value  it  more  for  its  age. 
If  such  a  course  be  best  in  climates  so  cool  and  cloudv, 
how  much  more  important  would  it  be  under  our  scorching 
summer  suns. 

"  But  if  the  weather  be  unsettled,  or  if  showers  be  fre- 
quent, it  may  be  better  to  spread  grass  well  as  soon  as  it  is 
mowed,  stir  it  often,  cock  it  the  same  day  it  is  moved  ;  open 
it  the  next  fair  day,  when  the  dew  is  off;  let  it  sweat  a  little 
in  the  cock,  and  house  it  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough.  It 
will  bear  to  be  laid  greener  on  a  scaffold  than  in  a  ground 
mow  ;  and  in  a  narrow  mow  greener  than  in  a  broad  one  ; 
and  that  which  is  least  of  all  made  should  be  put  upon  the 
scaffold."  —  Deane. 

Sir  John  Sinclair  is  very  explicit  on  the  subject  of  "  mak- 
ing clover  into  hay."  "The  process,"  he  observes,  "is  quite 
different  iVom  the  plan  of  making  liay  from  natural  grasses." 
Mr.  Lorrain  gives  us  both  sides  of  this  question.  He  savs, 
"  I  did  not  like  to  abandon  the  practice  of  curing  hay  in  the 
swath,  having  observed  that  it  saved  labor.  The  grasses  are 
at  all  times  very  expeditiously  turned  in  the  swath.  If  con- 
tinued rains  occur,  the  swaths  are  not  only  quickly  turned, 
but  if  the  sun  shines  powerfully  between  the  showers,  the 
inside  of  them  is  not  parched  by  its  rays.  By  turning  the 
swaths  throughout  long-continued  rain,  as  often  as  the  un- 
der side  of  them  was  likely  to  be  injured  by  fermentation,  I 
have  saved  extensive  fields  of  hay  ;  while  my  neighbours, 
who  gave  no  attention  to  this  interesting  subject,  had  their 
crops  entirely  ruined.  If  the  grasses,  however,  be  raked  up 
into  small  winrows,  they  are  as  readily  turned,  and  may  be 
as  effectually  preserved  as  if  they  remained  in  swaths,  but 
in  this  case  the  labor  is  greater." 

The  same  writer,  however,  in  the  next  paragraph,  takes 
other  ground.  "  Curing  hay,"  he  observes,  "  in  swath,  to 
save  the  juices,  seems  to  be  not  only  practically  wrong,  but 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  279 

also  opposed  to  reason.  The  confined  heat  and  moisture  in 
the  interior  of  the  swath  promote  fermentation,  and  must  be 
more  or  less  injurious  to  the  nutritive  matter  contained  in 
the  grasses.  It  is  exactly  calculated  to  weaken  the  grasp  of 
the  leaves,  and  to  separate  them  from  the  stalk.  It  also 
greatly  weakens  their  general  texture,  and  causes  them  to 
crumble  into  pieces  when  they  become  dry.  While  this  is 
doing,  the  outside  surface  of  the  swath  is  scorched  by  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  becomes  but  little  better  than  straw, 
before  the  inside  is  moderately  cured.  In  raking,  cockino-, 
heaping,  and  inning,  the  swaths  are  so  far  separated,  that 
many  of  the  leaves  are  lost  before  the  hay  gets  into  the 
mow  ;   but  few  of  them  get  into  the  rack." 

We  have  thus  given  both  sides  of  the  controverted  ques- 
tion in  agriculture,  and  our  readers  will  take  that  which  ap- 
pears to  them  most  tenable.  We  confess  ourselves  rather 
inclined  to  embrace  the  opinions  of  a  correspondent  who 
says,  "If  it  be  correct  to  'make  hay  while  the  sun  shines,' 
it  may  be  well  to  make  it  as  quickly  as  possible  ;  but  in  this, 
as  in  many  other  processes,  circumstances  alter  cases." 


HARVESTING.  It  is  asserted,  as  a  general  rule,  that 
the  proper  time  to  reap  wheat  or  rye  is  when  the  straw  be- 
gins to  shrink  and  become  white  about  half  an  inch  below 
the  ear.  This  appearance  is  a  sure  indication  that  the  grain 
has  ceased  to  receive  nourishment  from  the  roots  of  the 
plant ;  and  by  cutting  early,  provided  it  is  not  taken  to  the 
barn  or  stack  too  green,  the  following  advantages  will  be 
gained  :  1st.  -The  grain  will  make  more  and  whiter  flour. 
2d.  There  will  be  less  wasted  by  the  grain's  shelling.  3d. 
By  commencing  harvest  early,  you  will  have  a  fairer  pros- 
pect of  finishing  before  the  last  cuttings  become  too  ripe,  so 
that  much  of  the  grain  will  shell  out  in  reaping  and  securing 
the  crop.  4th.  If  you  cut  your  grain  as  soon  as  it  will  an- 
swer, your  straw  and  chaff  will  contain  much  more  nourish- 
ment than  if  it  were  bleached  and  made  brittle  by  the  sun, 
air,  dew,  and  rain,  all  of  which  combine  to  deprive  it  of  most 
of  its  value  for  fodder.  5th.  Should  you  plough  in  your 
stubble  immediately  after  harvest,  or  mow  it  and  secure  it 
for  fodder  or  litter,  (either  of  which  modes  of  management 
is  perfectly  consonant  with  the  rules  of  good  husbandry,) 
the  stubble  will  make  mu(;h  better  food  for  your  cattle  or  ma- 


280  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

nure  for  your  ground,  than  if  it  had  yielded  all  its  sweets 
and  much  of  its  substance  to  the  greedy  elements  above 
mentioned. 

If  your  wheat  or  rye  is  much  affected  by  blight  or  rust,  it 
should  be  cut  even  while  still  in  the  milk,  and  afterwards 
exposed  to  the  sun  and  air,  till  the  straw  is  sufficiently  dry 
and  the  grain  so  much  hardened  that  it  will  answer  to  de- 
posit in  the  barn  or  stack.  The  heads,  in  such  cases,  should 
be  so  placed  by  the  reapers  as  not  to  touch  the  ground.  This 
may  be  done  by  laying  the  top  ends  of  each  handt'ul  on  the 
lower  end  of  the  preceding  one. 

If  your  grain  is  encumbered  with  grass  or  weeds,  you 
must  cut  it  pretty  near  the  top,  in  order  to  avoid  as  much  as 
possible  those  extraneous  substances.  It  will  also  be  neces- 
sarv  to  reap  somewhat  earlier  than  might  be  otherwise  ex- 
pedient, that  you  may  have  time  to  dry  the  weeds  without 
danger  of  the  grain's  shelling  out.  If  your  grain  is  very 
ripe  when  you  harvest  it,  the  bands  should  be  made  early  in 
the  morning  while  the  straw  is  moist  and  pliable.  And  Dr. 
Deane  recommends,  in  such  cases,  to  bind  the  sheaves  when 
the  air  begins  to  be  damp  towards  evening,  as  the  least 
degree  of  moisture  will  toughen  the  straw. 

It  has  been  recommended  by  several  English  writers  to 
bind  wheat  as  well  as  rye  with  only  one  length  of  the  straw. 
If  the  straw  is  pretty  long,  and  not  very  thoroughly  dry,  this 
may  be  good  economy.  You  save  the  trouble  of  making 
bands  ;  your  wheat  will  dry  better  in  the  sheaf ;  (as  the 
sheaves  must  of  course  be  small  ;)  and  though  it  may  take 
some  more  time  and  trouble  to  pitch  and  handle  it,  we  believe 
the  advantages,  in  many  cases,  will  turn  the  scale  in  favor 
of  binding  wheat  with  single  lengths  of  straw. 

In  stowing  wheat  or  rye,  some  persons  deposit  the  sheaves 
on  a  mow  of  hay  ;  but  this  is  a  bad  plan,  as  the  grain  pres- 
ses the  hay  so  that  it  is  apt  to  become  musty,  and  communi- 
cate a  musty  or  mouldy  taint  to  the  superincumbent  grain  ; 
which  will  be  harder  to  thresh  than  if  it  had  a  more  dry  and 
airy  location.  It  may  be  placed  on  a  scaffold  of  rails,  laid 
on  the  beams,  and  over  the  floor  of  a  barn  ;  though  it  is  not 
so  easy  to  procure  it  for  threshing  as  if  it  were  laid  on  a 
scaffold  of  less  elevation.  But  this  disadvantage  may  be 
more  than  compensated  by  its  being  in  a  situation  favorable 
for  drying.  If  there  is  a  deficiency  of  barn  room,  the 
sheaves  may  be  stored  in  stacks.  In  that  case,  "  care  should 
be  taken  that  the  grain  may  not  draw   moisture   from  the 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  281 

ground,  by  laying  boards,  straw,  or  rubbish  under  the  stack. 
A  better  way  still,  is  to  have  a  tight  floor  of  boards  mounted 
on  four  blocks,  set  in  the  ground,  and  so  high  from  the 
ground  as  to  prevent  the  entering  of  vermin. 

"  In  building  a  stack,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the 
seed  ends  of  the  sheaves  in  the  middle,  and  a  little  higher 
than  the  outer  ends.  No  fowls  can  then  come  at  the  grain; 
and  the  rain  that  falls  on  the  outer  ends  will  run  ofl^,  and  not 
pass  towards  the  centre.  The  stack  should  be  well  topped 
with  straw,  that  the  rain  may  be  completely  turned  off." 

Oats.  It  is  advised  to  harvest  oats  before  the  straw  has 
■wholly  turned  yellow.  The  straw  will  be  of  little  value,  if 
permitted  to  stand  till  it  becomes  white  and  destitute  of  sap. 
Though  oats  should  be  well  dried  on  the  ground,  after  cut- 
ting, they  should  not  be  raked  nor  handled  when  they  are  in 
the  driest  state.  They  should  be  gathered  mornings  and 
evenings,  when  the  straw  is  made  limber  and  pliable  by  the 
moisture  of  the  air.  If  they  are  housed  while  a  little  damp, 
there  will  be  no  ^Janger,  if  they  have  been  previously  tho- 
roughly dried. 

Barleij.  We  are  told  by  the  wise  men  of  agriculture, 
that  some  of  the  rules  which  should  be  observed  in  harvest- 
ing wheat,  rye,  and  oats,  will  not  apply  to  barley.  Willich's 
"Domestic  Encyclopedia  "states,  that,  "  with  respect  to  the 
time  when  barley  is  fit  to  be  mowed,  farmers  frequently  fall 
into  the  error  of  cutting  it  before  it  is  perfectly  ripe  ;  think- 
ing it  will  attain  to  perfect  maturity  if  it  lie  in  the  swath. 
This,  however,  is  a  very  common  error,  as  it  v/ill  shrivel  in 
the  field,  and  afterwards  make  but  an  indifferent  malt  ;  it 
also  threshes  with  more  difficulty,  and  is  apt  to  be  bruised 
under  the  flail.  The  only  certain  test  of  judging  when  it  is 
fit  to  mow  must  be  from  the  dropping  and  falling  of  the  ears, 
so  as  to  double  against  the  straw.  In  that  state,  and  not 
before,  it  may  be  cut  with  all  expedition  and  carried  in  with- 
out danger  to  the  mow. 

Dr.  Deane's  "New  England  Farmer"  states,  that  "  some 
have  got  an  opinion  that  barley  should  be  harvested  before 
it  is  quite  ripe.  Though  the  flour  may  be  a  little  whiter, 
the  grain  shrinks  so  much  that  the  crop  seems  greatly  di- 
minished and  wasted  by  early  cutting.  No  grain,  I  think,  re- 
quires more  ripening  than  this  ;  and  it  is  not  apt  to  scatter 
out  when  it  is  very  ripe.  It  should  be  threshed  soon  after 
harvesting  ;  and  much  beating,  after  it  is  cleared  from  the 
straw,  is  necessary  in  order  to  get  off  the  beards.  Let  it  lie 
24* 


282  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

a  night  or  two  in  the  dew,  after  it  is  cut,  and  the  beards  will 
come  off  the  more  easily. 


DRAINS  used  in  farming  are  of  two  kinds,  open  and 
covered.  Drains  should  be  of  a  size  and  depth  proportioned 
to  the  extent  of  the  swamp  and  the  probable  quantity  of 
water  for  which  they  are  designed  to  be  channels.  They 
should  generally  be  carried  through  the  lowest  and  wettest 
part  of  the  soil,  although  it  should  be  necessary,  in  order  to 
effect  that  purpose,  to  deviate  from  straight  lines.  Open 
drains  sometimes  answer  the  double  purpose  of  conveying  off 
superfluous  water  and  of  inclosing  fields  ;  but  they  make  a 
hazardous  and  inconvenient  fence  without  the  addition  of  a 
bank,  hedge,  or  railing.  The  "  Farmer's  Assistant"  says, 
"  When  a  ditch  is  made  for  a  fence,  it  ought  to  be  four  feet 
Avide  at  the  top,  one  or  less  at  the  bottom,  and  about  two 
and  a  half  deep  ;  with  the  earth  all  thrown  out  on  one  side, 
and  banked  up  as  high  as  possible."  Sir  John  Sinclair 
states,  that  "  it  is  a  general  rule  regarding  open  drains,  with 
a  view  of  giving  sufficient  slope  and  stability  to  their  sides, 
that  the  width  at  top  should  be  three  times  as  much  as  that 
which  is  necessary  at  the  bottom,  and  in  the  case  of  peat- 
mosses or  soft  soils,  it  should  be  such  as  to  allow  the  water 
to  run  off  without  stagnation,  but'not  with  so  rapid  a  motion 
as  to  injure  the  bottom." 

But  before  you  attempt  to  drain  a  piece  of  land,  it  will  be 
well  not  only  to  calculate  the  cost,  but  to  ascertain  the  nature 
of  the  soil  which  it  is  proposed  to  render  fit  for  cultivation. 
If  the  subsoil  or  under  layer  be  clay,  the  swamp  may  be 
worth  draining,  though  there  should  be  no  more  than  six 
inches  of  black  soil  or  mud  over  it,  for  the  clay  and  the  mud 
mixed  will  make  a  fertile  soil.  But  if  the  subsoil  or  under 
stratum  be  gravel  or  white  sand,  it  will  not,  in  common  cases, 
be  best  to  undertake  draining,  unless  the  depth  of  black  mud 
be  as  much  as  from  fifteen  or  eighteen  inches  deep  ;  for  the 
soil  will  settle  after  draining,  and  be  less  deep  than  it  was 
before.  But  the  situation  of  the  land  to  be  drained  may 
authorize  some  variation  from  these  general  rules. 

The  manner  of  draining  a  swamp  is  as  follows.  Beginning 
at  the  outlet,  pass  a  large  ditch  through  it,  so  as  mostly  to 
cut  the  lowest  parts.  Then  make  another  ditch  quite  round 
it,  near  to  the  border,  to  cut  off  the  springs  which  come  from 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  283 

the  upland,  and  to  receive  the  water  that  runs  down  from 
the  hills  upon  the  surface  in  great  rains.  These  ditches 
should  be  larger  or  smaller,  in  some  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  swamp,  the  shape  and  size  of  the  hills  which  surround 
it,  and  other  circumstances,  which  might  tend  to  greater  or 
less  quantities  of  water  being  occasionally  or  generally  led 
to  the  ditches.  If  the  swamp  be  large,  it  may  be  necessary 
that  some  smaller  cross  drains  should  be  cut  in  several  of  the 
lowest  parts.  The  bottom  of  the  main  ditches,  when  the 
soil  is  not  of  an  extraordinary  depth,  must  be  lower  than  the 
bottom  of  the  loose  soil  ;  otherwise  the  soil  will  never  be- 
come sufficiently  dry  and  firm.* 

It  is  said,  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  (Code  of  Agriculture,  p. 
182,)  that,  "  in  all  drains,  it  is  a  rule  to  begin  at  the  lowest 
place  and  to  work  upwards,  by  which  the  water  will  always 
pass  from  the  workmen  and  point  out  the  level.  This  ena- 
bles the  laborers  also  to  work  in  coarse  weather,  and  prevents 
their  being  interrupted  by  wet  so  early  in  the  season  as 
otherwise  might  happen." 

The  mud  and  other  materials  which  are  dug  out  of  a  ditch 
or  drain  should  not  be  suffered  to  lie  in  heaps  or  banks  by 
the  side  of  the  ditch,  but  should  be  spread  as  equally  as  pos- 
sible over  the  surface  of  the  drained  land.  In  this  way,  the 
matter  taken  from  the  ditches  will  tend  to  level  the  surface 
of  the  swamp,  will,  perhaps,  serve  in  some  measure  for  ma- 
nure, and  will  not  present  any  impediment  to  the  passage  of 
the  water  to  the  ditches.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  advisable 
to  transport  the  earth  which  is  taken  from  the  ditches  to 
the  farm-yard  or  the  hogpen,  to  form  a  part  of  that  layer 
which  good  farmers  generally  spread  over  those  places  in 
autumn,  to  imbibe  liquid  manure,  or  make  into  compost  with 
dung.  In  many  instances,  we  are  told,  that  the  earth  thus 
dug  out  of  ditches  is  thought  to  be  worth  enough  to  pay  for 
the  expense  of  digging  the  ditches. 

Mr.  Henry  W.  Delavan,  in  a  communication  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Under  draining,  in  "The  New  England  Farmer," 
(Vol.X.  p.  97,)  says  :  — 

"  Without  this  salutary  and  simple  operation,  no  in- 
considerable proportion  of  many  valuable  districts  of  our 
country  must  continue  little  better  than  waste.  It  is  gener- 
ally total  loss  of  labor  to  the  farmer  who  attempts  to  cultivate 
wet  lands  in  our  rigorous  climate,   and   by   draining,  these 

*  See  Deane's  New  England  Farmer,  article  Drains. 


284  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

useless  inhospitable   acres  have  been   found  of  the  kindliest 
and  most  productive  character. 

"  Having  a  surplus  of  stones  on  my  estate  beyond  what 
fences  require,  I  use  the  smaller  and  ill-formed  for  drains  ; 
they  have  the  advantage  of  brush  in  durability  and  of  tiles 
in  economy.  My  drains  are,  for  the  most  part,  three  feet  in 
depth,  two  feet  in  width  at  top,  sloping  to  one  at  bottom. 
The  bottom  stones  are  largest,  and  are  carefully  placed  to 
allow  the  water  to  flow  freely  beneath,  while  above  the  small 
stones  are  thrown  in  at  random,  so  that  when  levelled  they 
are  beneath  the  plough.  Over  these  swingle-tow,  shavings, 
or  straw,  may  be  thrown,  after  which  the  earth  can  be  re- 
placed by  the  spade  or  plough,  so  as  to  present  a  rather 
higher  surface  than  the  grounds  adjacent,  and  the  business 
is  accomplished.  It  is  very  essential  that  the  descent  be 
easy,  neither  too  quick  nor  too  slow,  and  that  all  surface 
water  be  excluded,  as  it  would  speedily  choke  and  destroy 
the  underdraining.  I  estimate  the  average  cost  of  such 
drains  at  sixty-two  and  a  half  cents  the  rod.  It  should  be 
remarked,  that  underdrainins  is  adapted  to  lands  presenting 
sufficient  declivity  to  carry  off"  the  springs,  and  it  is  only  the 
under  water  that  is  meant  to  be  drained  in  this  manner, 
while  open  ditches  are  adapted  to  the  bottom  lands  for  the 
conveyance  of  surface  water.  I  will  state  what  appears  to 
me  the  prominent  advantages  that  the  cultivator  may  prom- 
ise himself  by  a  thorough  system  of  draining. 

"  In  the  first  place,  he  creates,  as  it  were,  so  much  addi- 
tional terra  firma,  and  adds  essentially  to  the  health  of  all 
around  him,  by  correcting  the  ill  tendencies  of  excessive 
moisture.  He  can  cultivate  reclaimed  lands  several  weeks 
earlier  and  as  much  later  in  each  year  than  those  that  are  un- 
reclaimed, and  his  crops  are  better  and  more  sure.  The  labor 
of  after  tillage  is  much  diminished.  The  stones  that  impede 
the  plough  and  scythe  are  removed;  and  not  the  least  essen- 
tial benefit  is  the  constant  supplies  of  water  which  may  be 
insured  in  any  field  inclining  to  moisture,  which,  with  refe- 
rence to  animals,  will,  as  a  permanent  convenience  and  ad- 
vantage, fully  compensate  the  expense  of  drains." 


PASTURE.  'To  manage  pasture  land  advantageously,  it 
should  be  well  fenced  in  small  lots,  of  four,  eight,  or  twelve 
acres,  according  to  the  largeness  of  one's  farm  and  stock  ; 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  285 

and  these  lots  should  be  bordered  at  least  with  rows  of  trees. 
It  is  best  that  trees  of  some  kind  or  other  should  be  growing 
scattered  in  every  point  of  a  pasture,  so  that  the  cattle  may 
never  have  to  go  far  in  a  hot  hour  to  obtain  a  comfortable 
shade.  The  grass  will  spring  earlier  in  lots  that  are  thus 
sheltered,  and  they  will  bear  drought  the  better.  But  too 
great  a  proportion  of  shade  should  be  avoided,  as  it  will  give 
a  sourness  to  the  grass. 

"  Small  lots  thus  sheltered  are  not  left  bare  of  snow  so 
early  in  the  spring  as  larger  ones  lying  bare,  as  fences  and 
trees  cause  more  of  it  to  remain  upon  the  ground.  The 
cold  winds  in  March  and  April  hurt  the  grass  much  when 
the  ground  is  bare.  And  the  winds  in  winter  will  not  suffer 
snow  to  lie  deep  on  land  that  is  too  open  to  the  rake  of 
winds  and  storms. 

"  It  is  hurtful  to  pastures  to  turn  in  cattle  too  early  in  the 
spring  ;  and  most  hurtful  to  those  pastures  in  which  the 
grass  springs  earliest,  as  in  very  low  and  wet  pastures. 
Potching  such  land  in  the  spring  destroys  the  sward,  so 
that  it  will  produce  the  less  quantity  of  grass.  Neither 
should  cattle  be  let  into  any  pasture  until  the  grass  is  so 
much  grown  as  to  afford  them  a  good  bite,  so  that  they  may 
fill  themselves  without  rambling  over  the  whole  lot.  The 
20th  of  May  is  early  enough  to  turn  cattle  into  almost  any 
of  our  pastures.  Out  of  some  they  should  be  kept  later. 
The  driest  pastures  should  be  used  first,  though  in  them  the 
grass  is  shortest,  that  the  potching  of  the  ground  in  the  wet- 
test may  be  prevented. 

"The  bushes  and  shrubs  that  rise  in  pastures  should  be 
cut  in  the  most  likely  times  to  destroy  them.  Thistles  and 
other  bad  weeds  should  be  cut  down  before  their  seeds  have 
ripened  ;  and  ant-hills  should  be  destroyed.  Much  may  be 
done  towards  subduing  a  bushy  pasture  by  keeping  cattle 
hungry  in  it.  A  continual  browsing  keeps  down  the  younop 
shoots,  and  totally  kills  many  of  the  bushes.  Steers  and 
heifers  may  mend  such  a  pasture,  and  continue  growing. 

"  But  as  to  cleared  pastures,  it  is  not  right  to  turn  in  all 
sorts  of  cattle  promiscuously.  Milch  kine,  working  oxen, 
and  fatting  beasts,  should  have  the  first  feeding  of  an  inclo- 
sure  ;  afterwards,  sheep  and  horses.  When  the  first  lot  is 
thus  fed  off,  it  should  be  shut  up,  and  the  dung  that  has  been 
dropped  should  be  beat  to  pieces,  and  well  scattered.  After- 
wards, the  second  pasture  should  be  treated  in  the   same 


286  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

manner,  and  the  rest  in  course,  feeding  the  wettest  pasture 
after  the  driest,  that  the  soil  may  be  less  potched. 

"Something  considerable  is  saved  by  letting  all  sorts  of 
grazing  animals  take  their  turn  in  a  pasture.  By  means  of 
this,  nearly  all  the  herbage  produced  will  be  eaten  ;  much 
of  which  would  otherwise  be  lost.  Horses  will  eat  the  leav- 
ings of  horned  cattle  ;  and  sheep  will  eat  some  things  that 
both  the  one  and  the  other  leave. 

"  But  if  in  a  course  of  pasturing,  by  means  of  a  fruitful 
year  or  a  scanty  stock  of  cattle,  some  grass  of  a  good  kind 
should  run  up  to  seed  and  not  be  eaten,  it  need  not  be  re- 
gretted ;  for  a  new  supply  of  seed  will  fill  the  ground  with 
new  roots,  which  are  better  than  old  ones.  And  I  know  of 
no  grass  that  never  needs  renewing  from  the  seed. 

'*  A  farmer  needs  not  to  be  told,  that  if  he  turn  swine  into 
a  pasture,  thev  should  have  rings  in  their  noses,  unless 
brakes  and  other  weeds  need  to  be  rooted  out.  Swine  may 
do  service  in  this  way.  They  should  never  have  the  first  ol 
the  feed  ;  for  they  will  foul  the  grass,  and  make  it  distasteful 
to  horses  and  cattle. 

"  Let  the  stock  of  a  farmer  be  greater  or  less,  he  should 
have  at  least  four  inclosures  of  pasture  land.  One  inclosure 
may  be  fed  two  weeks,  and  then  shut  up  to  grow  ;  then 
another.  Each  one  will  recruit  well  in  six  weeks  ;  and  each 
will  have  this  space  of  time  to  recruit.  But  in  the  latter 
part  of  October,  the  cattle  may  range  through  all  the  lots, 
unless  some  one  may  become  too  wet  and  soft.  In  this  case, 
it  ought  to  be  shut  up,  and  kept  so  till  feeding  time  the  next 
year. 

"But  that  farmers  may  not  be  troubled  with  low  miry  pas- 
tures, they  should  drain  them,  if  it  be  practicable,  or  can  be 
done  consistently  with  their  other  business.  If  they  should 
produce  a  smaller  quantity  of  grass  afterwards,  it  will  be 
sweeter,  and  of  more  value.  It  is  well  known,  that  cattle 
fatted  in  a  dry  pasture  have  better  tasted  flesh  than  those 
which  are  fatted  in  a  wet  one.  In  the  old  countries  it  will 
fetch  a  higher  price.  This  is  particularly  the  case  as  to 
mutton. 

"Feeding  pastures  in  rotation  is  of  greater  advantage  than 
some  are  apt  to  imagine.  One  acre,  managed  according  to 
the  above  directions,  will  turn  to  better  account,  as  some 
say  who  have  practised  it,  than  three  acres  in  the  common 
way.  By  the  common  way  I  would  be  understood  to  mean, 
having  weak  and  tottering   fences,  that  will  drop  of  them- 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  287 

selves  in  a  tew  months,  and  never  can  resist  the  violence  ot' 
disorderly  cattle  ;  suffering  weeds  and  bushes  to  overrun  the 
land  ;  keeping  all  the  pasture  land  in  one  inclosure  ;  turn- 
ing in  all  sorts  of  stock  together  ;  suffering  the  fence  to 
drop  down  in  autumn,  so  as  to  lay  the  pasture  common  to 
all  the  swine  and  cattle  that  please  to  enter  ;  and  not  putting 
up  the  fence  again  till  the  1st  of  May,  or  later.  Such 
management  is  too  common  in  all  the  parts  of  this  country. 

"  Land  which  is  constantly  used  as  pasture  will  be  enrich- 
ed. Therefore  it  is  advisable  to  mow  a  pasture  lot  once  in 
three  of  four  years,  if  the  surface  be  so  level  as  to  admit  of 
it.  In  the  mean  time,  to  make  amends  for  the  loss  of  pas- 
ture, a  mowing  lot  may  be  pastured.  It  will  thus  be  improv- 
ed :  and  if  the  grass  do  not  grow  so  rank  afterwards  in  the 
pasture  lot,  it  will  be  more  clear  of  weeds,  and  bear  better 
grass.  Alternate  pasturing  and  mowing  has  the  advantage 
of  saving  a  good  deal  of  expense  and  trouble  in  manuring 
the  mowing  grounds.     - 

"  Though  pastures  need  manuring  less  than  other  lands, 
yet,  when  bushes,  bad  weeds,  &c.  are  burnt  upon  them,  the 
ashes  should  be  spread  thinly  over  the  surface.  The  grass 
will  thus  be  improved  :  and  grass  seeds  should  be  sown  upon 
the  burnt  spots,  that  no  part  may  be  vacant  of  grass. 

"  Sheep,  calves,  and  horses,  unless  they  are  worked,  it  is 
said,  require  no  water  in  their  pastures.  The  want  of  water 
induces  them  to  feed  in  the  night,  when  the  dew  is  on  and 
the  grass  the  more  nutritious.  Cows  however  want  pure 
water. 

"In  pastures  which  are  on  side-hills,  water  may  generally 
be  obtained  by  digging  horizontally  into  the  side  of  the  hill, 
till  it  is  found,  and  then  carrying  it  out  with  a  pipe."  — 
Deane. 

"  Three  modes  have  been  adopted  in  Great  Britain  for 
consuming  clover  and  other  herbage  plants  by  pasturing. 
These  are  tethering,  or  fastening  the  feeding  animal  to  a 
stake,  hurdling,  and  free  pasturage.  In  the  '  Agricultural 
Report  of  Aberdeenshire,'  it  is  stated,  that  there  are  some 
cases  in  which  the  plan  of  tethering  can  be  practised  with 
more  profit  than  even  soiling.  In  the  neighbourhood  of 
Peterhead,  for  instance,  they  tether  milch  cows  on  their 
grass  fields,  in  a  regular  and  systematic  method,  moving 
each  tether  forward  in  a  straight  line,  not  above  one  foot  at  a 
time,  so  as  to  prevent  the  cows  from  treading  on  the  grass 
that  is  to  be  eaten  ;  care  being  always  taken  to  move  the 


288  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

tether  forward,  like  a  person  cutting  clover  with  a  scythe, 
from  one  end  of  the  field  to  the  other.  In  this  way,  a  great- 
er number  of  cows  can  be  kept  on  the  same  quantity  of  grass 
than  by  any  other  plan,  except  where  it  grows  high  enough 
to  be  cut  and  given  them  green  in  houses.  In  one  instance, 
the  system  was  carried  to  great  perfection  by  a  gentleman 
who  kept  a  few  sheep  upon  longer  tethers,  following  the 
cows.  Sometimes  also  he  tethered  horses  afterwards  upon 
the  same  field,  which  prevented  any  possible  waste,  for  the 
tufts  of  grass  produced  by  the  dung  of  one  species  of  animal 
will  be  eaten  by  those  of  another  kind  without  reluctance. 
This  mode  was  peculiarly  calculated  for  the  cow-feeders  la 
Peterhead  ;  as,  from  the  smallness  of  their  holdings,  they 
could  not  keep  servants  to  cut  or  horses  to  carry  home  the 
grass  to  their  houses,  to  be  consumed  in  a  green  state. 

"  In  hurdling  off  clover  or  herbage  crops,  a  portion  of  the 
field  is  inclosed  by  hurdles,  [movable  wooden  fences,]  in 
which  sheep  are  confined,  and  as  the  crop  is  consumed  the 
pen  is  changed  to  a  fresh  place,  until  the  whole  is  fed  off. 
This  practice  is  very  extensively  adopted  at  Holkham  [Eng.,] 
and  is  peculiarly  calculated  for  light  and  dry  soils.  Its  ad- 
vantages are,  that  the  grass  is  more  economically  consumed; 
that  the  stock  thrives  better,  having  daily  a  fresh  bite  ;  and 
that  the  dung  which  falls,  being  more  concentrated,  is  more 
likely  to  be  of  use."  —  Loudon. 

Water  should  be  provided  for  every  field  under  pasture  ; 
and  also  shelter  and  shade,  either  by  a  few  trees,  or  by  a 
portable  shed,  which  may  be  moved  with  the  stock  from  one 
inclosure  to  another.  Where  there  are  no  trees,  rubbing 
posts  are  also  a  desirable  addition.  In  Germany  they  have 
portable  sheds  which  are  employed  both  in  summer  and  win- 
ter, and  generally  with  a  piece  of  rock-salt  fixed  to  a  post  for 
the  cattle  to  lick  at  will. 

Some  graziers  mix  a  few  sheep  and  one  or  two  colts  in 
each  pasture,  which  both  turn  to  account,  and  do  little  in- 
jury to  the  grazing  cattle.  In  some  cases,  we  are  told  that 
sheep  are  beneficial  to  pastures,  by  eating  down  and  de- 
stroying white  weed,  and  some  other  useless  and  pernicious 
plants. 

So  various  is  the  appetite  of  animals,  that  there  is  scarcely 
any  plant  which  is  not  chosen  by  some  and  left  untouched 
by  others.  The  following  is  said  to  be  a  fact,  known  and 
practised  on  by  graziers  in  Holland.  When  eight  cows  have 
been  in  a  pasture,  and  can   no   longer  obtain  nourishment, 


AxND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  289 

two  horses  will  do  very  well  there  for  some  days,  and  when 
nothing  is  left  for  the  horses,  four  sheep  will  live  upon  it  ; 
this  not  only  proceeds  from  their  differing  in  the  choice  of 
plants,  but  from  the  formation  of  their  mouths,  which  are  not 
equally  adapted  to  lay  hold  of  the  grass. 

Stocking  a  pasture  with  as  many  sheep  as  it  will  support 
is  recommended  for  forming  a  tender  herbage,  and  causing 
the  grass  to  mat  or  grow  very  thick  at  the  bottom. 

An  English  writer  says,  "in  turning  out  horses  to  grass  in 
the  spring,  it  is  usual  to  choose  the  forenoon  of  a  fine  day  to 
do  it  in  ;  the  natural  consequence  is,  the  horse  fills  his  belly 
during  the  sunshine,  and  lays  down  to  rest  during  the  cold 
of  the  night,  thereby  probably  exposing  himself  to  disorders. 
In  some  parts  of  Yorkshire  a  better  practice  prevails  :  the 
horse  is  turned  out  at  bed-time  ;  the  consequence  is,  he  eats 
all  night,  and  sleeps  in  the  sunshine  of  the  next  day." 


POULTRY.  In  order  to  have  fine  fowls,  it  is  necessary 
to  choose  a  good  breed,  and  have  a  proper  care  taken  .of 
them.  The  Canton  breed  is  thought  highly  of;  and  it  is 
certainly  desirable  to  have  a  fine  large  kind,  but  people  differ 
in  their  opinion  which  is  best.  It  is  as  important  to  cross 
the  breeds  of  fouls  as  of  other  animals  ;  hence  it  is  improper 
to  saVe  males  and  females  from  the  same  sittings  of  eggs,  if 
they  are  to  be  kept  for  propagation.  The  black  is  very 
juicy  ;  but  do  not  answer  so  well  for  boiling,  as  their  legs 
partake  of  their  color.  They  should  be  fed  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible at  the  same  hour  and  place.  Potatoes  boiled,  unskin- 
ned,  in  a  little  water,  and  then  cut,  and  either  wet  with 
skimmed  milk  or  not,  form  one  of  the  best  foods.  Turkeys 
and  fowls  thrive  amazingly  on  them.  The  milk  must  not  be 
sour. 

The  best  age  for  setting  a  hen  is  from  two  to  five  years  ; 
and  you  should  remark  which  hens  make  the  best  brooders, 
and  keep  those  to  laying  who  are  giddy  and  careless  of  their 
young.  In  justice  to  the  animal  creation,  however,  it  must 
be  observed,  there  are  but  few  instances  of  bad  parents  for 
the  time  their  nursing  is  necessary. 

Hens  sit  twenty  days.      Convenient  places  should  be  pro- 
vided for  their  laying,  as  these  will  be  proper  for  sitting  like- 
wise.     If  the  hen-house   is  not  secured   from   vermin,  the 
eggs  will  be  sucked  and  the  fowls  destroyed. 
25 


290  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

Those  hens  are  usually  preferred  which  have  tufts  of 
feathers  on  their  heads  ;  those  that  crow  are  not  looked  upon 
as  profitable.  Some  fine  young  fowls  should  be  reared  eve- 
ry year,  to  keep  up  a  stock  of  good  breeders  ;  and  by  this 
attention,  and  removing  bad  layers  and  careless  nurses,  you 
will  have  a  chance  of  a  good  stock. 

Let  the  hens  lay  some  time  before  you  set  them,  which 
should  be  done  from  the  end  of  February  to  the  beginning 
of  May.  While  hens  are  laying,  feed  them  well,  and  some- 
times with  oats. 

Broods  of  chickens  are  hatched  all  through  the  summer, 
but  those  that  come  out  very  late  require  much  care  till  they 
have  gained  some  strength. 

If  the  eggs  of  any  sort  are  put  under  a  hen  with  some  of 
her  own,  observe  to  add  her  own  as  many  days  after  the 
others  as  there  is  difference  in  the  length  of  their  sitting. 
A  turkey  and  duck  sit  thirty  days.  Choose  large  clear  eggs 
to  put  her  upon,  and  such  a  number  as  she  can  properly 
cover.  If  very  large  eggs,  there  are  sometimes  two  yolks, 
and  of  course  neither  will  be  productive.  Ten  or  twelve  are 
quite  enough. 

A  hen-house  should  be  large  and  high  ;  and  should  be 
frequently  cleaned  out,  or  the  vermin  of  fowls  will  increase 
greatly.  But  hens  must  not  be  disturbed  while  sitting  ;  for 
if  frightened,  they  sometimes  forsake  their  nests.  Worm- 
wood and  rue  should  be  planted  plentifully  about  ^heir 
houses  ;  boil  some  of  the  former,  and  sprinkle  it  about  the 
floor,  which  should  be  of  smooth  earth  not  paved.  The 
windows  of  the  house  should  be  open  to  the  ri.sing  sun,  and 
a  hole  must  be  left  at  the  door,  to  let  the  smaller  fowls  go 
in  ;  the  larger  may  be  let  in  and  out  by  opening  the  door. 
There  should  be  a  small  sliding  board  to  shut  down  when 
the  fowls  are  gone  to  roost,  which  would  prevent  the  small 
beasts  of  prey  from  committing  ravages  ;  and  a  good  strong 
door  and  lock  may  possibly,  in  some  measure,  prevent  the 
depredations  of  human  enemies. 

When  some  of  the  chickens  are  hatched  long  before  the 
others,  it  may  be  necessary  to  keep  them  in  a  basket  of  wool 
till  the  others  come  forth.  The  day  after  they  are  hatched, 
give  them  some  crumbs  of  white  bread,  and  small  (or  rather 
cracked)  grits  soaked  in  milk.  As  soon  as  they  have  gained 
a  little  strength  feed  them  with  curd,  cheese  parings  cut 
small,  bojled  corn,  or  any  soft  food,  but  nothing  sour  ;  and 
give  th^  clean  water  twice  a  day.     Keep  the  hen  under  a 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  291 

pen  till  the  young  have  strength  to  follow  her  about,  which 
will  be  in  two  or  three  weeks,  and  be  sure  to  feed  her  well. 

The  food  of  fowls  goes  first  into  their  crop,  which  softens 
it  ;  and  then  passes  into  the  gizzard,  which  by  constant  fric- 
tion macerates  it  ;  and  this  is  facilitated  by  small  stones, 
which  are  generally  found  there,  and  which  help  to  digest 
the  food. 

The  pip  in  fowls  is  occasioned  by  drinking  dirty  water,  or 
taking  lilthy  food.  A  white  thin  scale  on  the  tongue  is  the 
symptom.  Pull  the  scale  off  with  your  nail,  and  rub  the 
tongue  with  some  salt  ;    and  the  complaint  will  be  removed. 

It  answers  well  to  pay  some  boy  employed  in  the  farm  or 
stable  so  much  a  hundred  for  the  eggs  he  brings  in.  It  will 
be  his  interest  then  to  save  them  from  being  purloined,  which 
nobody  but  one  in  his  situation  can  prevent  ;  and  six  or 
eight  cents  a  hundred  will  be  buying  eggs  cheap. 

To  fatten  Fowls  or  Chickens  in  four  or  five  Days.  Set 
rice  over  the  fire  with  skinnned  milk,  only  as  much  as  will 
serve  one  day.  Let  it  boil  till  the  rice  is  quite  swelled  out: 
you  may  add  a  tea-spoonful  or  two  of  sugar,  but  it  will  do 
well  without.  Feed  them  three  times  a  day,  in  common 
pans,  giving  them  only  as  much  as  will  quite  fill  them  at 
once.  When  you  put  fresh,  let  the  pans  be  set  in  water, 
that  no  sourness  may  be  conveyed  to  the  fowls,  as  that 
prevents  them  from  fattening.  Give  them  clean  water,  or 
the. milk  of  rice,  to  drink  ;  but  the  less  wet  the  latter  is  when 
perfectly  soaked  the  better.  By  this  method  the  flesh  will 
have  a  clear  whiteness  which  no  other  food  gives  ;  and  when 
it  is  considered  how  far  a  pound  of  rice  will  go,  and  how 
much  time  is  saved  by  this  mode,  it  will  be  found  to  be 
cheap.  The  pen  should  be  daily  cleaned,  and  no  food  given 
for  sixteen  hours  before  poultry  be  killed.  A  proportion  of 
animal  mixed  with  vegetable  food  is  said  to  cause  poultry  to 
thrive  rapidly,  but  they  should  be  confined  to  a  vegetable 
diet  for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  before  they  are  killed  for 
eating.  A  quantity  of  charcoal,  broken  in  small  pieces  and 
placed  within  the  reach  of  poultry,  is  said  to  increase  their 
appetite,  promote  their  digestion,  and  expedite  their  fat- 
tening. 

To  choose  Eggs  at  Market  and  preserve  them.  Put  the 
large  end  of  the  egg  to  your  tongue  ;  if  it  feels  warm  it  is 
new.  In  new-laid  eggs  there  is  a  small  division  of  the  skin 
from  the  shell,  which  is  filled  with  air,  and  is  perceptible  to 
the  eye  at  the  end.      On  looking  through  them,  against  the 


292  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

sun  or  a  candle,  if  fresh,  eggs  will  be  pretty  clear.     If  they 
shake  they  are  not  fresh. 

Eggs  may  be  bought  cheapest  when  the  hens  first  begin 
to  lay  in  the  spring,  before  they  sit  ;  in  fall  and  winter  they 
become  dear.  They  may  be  preserved  fresh  by  dipping 
them  in  boiling  water  and  in.><tantly  taking  them  out,  or  by 
oiling  the  shell  ;  either  of  which  ways  is  to  prevent  the  air 
passing  through  it  ;  or  kept  on  shelves,  with  small  holes  to 
receive  one  in  each,  and  be  turned  every  other  day  ;  or  close 
packed  in  the  keg,  and  covered  with  strong  lime-water.* 


BIRDS.  The  following  remarks  on  shooting  birds,  &c., 
are  from  a  communication,  published  in  the  "  New  England 
Farmer."  Vol.  IX.,  p.  338  ;  — 

"  It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  the  alarming  increase  of 
worms  and  insects  in  making  ravages  upon  our  fruit-trees  and 
fruit,  not  only  paralyzes  the  efforts  and  disheartens  the  hopes 
of  the  cultivator,  but  threatens  total  destruction  to  many  of 
the  most  delicious  kinds.  So  extensive  are  their  ravages 
that  but  very  few  of  our  apricots  and  plums  ever  ripen  with- 
out premature  decay  from  the  worm  generated  by  the  beetles 
which  surround  our  trees  in  the  twilight  of  the  evening  in 
great  numbers  when  the  fruit  is  quite  young.  And  when 
the  produce  of  our  apple,  pear,  or  peach  trees  is  small,  but 
few  of  these  escape  the  same  fate. 

"  I  attribute  the  rapid  and  alarming  increase  of  these 
worms  and  insects  xcholly  to  the  diminution  of  those  birds 
which  fall  a  prey  to  our  sportsmen,  which  are  known  to  feed 
upon  them,  and  for  whose  subsistence  these  insects  were  ap- 
parently created. 

"  In  addition  to  the  important  usefulness  of  these  birds, 
their  musical  notes  in  the  twilight  of  the  morning  are 
peculiarly  delightful  ;  awaking  the  cultivator  to  the  sublime 
contemplation  and  enjoyment  of  all  the  infinite  beauties  of 
creation. 

"  In  vain  will  be  all  our  toil  and  labor,  in  vain  the  united 
efforts  of  horticultural  societies  for  increasing  and  perfecting 
the  cultivation  of  the  most  delicious  varieties  of  fruits,  unless 

*  For  Treatises  on  Poultry  and  their  different  varieties,  see  Fessenden's 
Mowbrav,  published  iiv  Lilly  and  Wait,  and  New  England  Farmer.  Vol. 
IX.  p.  254,  27S,  293,  318,  341. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  293 

we  can  increase,  or  at  least  cease  to  diminish  these  useful  and 
melodious  birds. 

"  If  we  have  a  statute  in  this  commonwealth  providing  for 
the  protection  of  these  birds,  let  us  unite  our  efforts  to  arrest 
this  wanton  destruction  of  them  by  enforcing  (he  penalties  of 
Ike  law  in  every  instance  of  ils  violation.  Our  Horticultural 
Society  can  scarcely  do  a  greater  service  in  promoting  the 
objects  of  its  organization,  than  by  making  a  spontaneous 
and  vigorous  effort  to  this  effect. 

"  If  there  be  no  statute  for  the  protection  of  these  invalua- 
ble creatures,  I  would  earnestly,  yet  respectfully,  suggest  to 
the  Horticultural  Society  the  propriety  and  even  necessity 
of  their  petitioning  our  legislature  at  their  next  session  for 
such  an  act. 

"  It  is  a  common  practice  with  these  sportsmen  through 
the  summer  to  range  the  groves  and  orchards  in  this  vicin- 
ity, almost  every  pleasant  day,  and  more  numerously  on 
holidays,  and  to  shoot  every  bird  that  comes  within  their 
reach. 

"It  is  not  however  a  small  nor  an  easy  task  for  one  indi- 
vidual to  get  their  names,  residence,  and  the  evidence  neces- 
sary for  their  conviction  ;  but  it  requires  the  united  efforts 
of  all  who  are  immediately  interested.  Already  have  these 
sportsmen  commenced  their  v/anton  destruction  of  these 
useful  creatures,  even  before  they  had  time  to  build  a  nest 
for  the  rearing  of  their  young.  Birds  that  have  survived  the 
dreary  winter  in  a  more  genial  clime,  having  now  returned 
to  bless  our  efforts  by  their  industry  and  to  cheer  our  days 
with  their  melody,  are  scarcely  permitted  to  commence  their 
vernal  song,  ere  they  must  fall  victims  to  a  wanton  idle- 
ness that  is  as  destitute  of  moral  feeling  as  of  useful  employ- 
ment." 

The  following  was  originally  published  in  the  Boston  Pa- 
triot ;  — 

"  On  Birds  and  their  Misfortunes.  We  have  already  inti- 
mated our  opinion,  that  the  labors  of  the  scientific  ornithol- 
ogist are  of  far  more  practical  utility  than  the  casual  ob- 
server might  suppose  ;  and  that,  even  in  the  business  of 
legislation,  a  regard  to  his  researches  might  prevent  many 
errors,  which  may  much  affect  public  welfare.  The  legisla- 
tion on  the  subject  of  birds  has  been  marked  by  some  essen- 
tial errors,  which  have  led  to  real  evil.  By  the  law  of  1817, 
woodcocks,  snipes,  larks,  and  robbins,  were  protected  at  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year,  whilst  war  to  the  knife  was  de- 
'25* 


294  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

clared  against  crows,  blackbirds,  owls,  blue-jays,  and  hawks; 
these  last  were  treated  as  a  sort  of  pirates,  subject  to  sus- 
pension at  the  yard-arm  with  the  least  possible  ceremony. 
It  so  happens,  that  the  character  of  these  very  birds  has  been 
singularly  mistaken  ;  for  while  the  ordnance  of  legislation 
has  been  thus  systematically  levelled  at  them,  they,  on  a 
principle  which  man  would  do  extremely  well  to  imitate, 
have  been  returning  good  for  evil  ;  they  have  been  diligently 
engaged  in  extirpating  all  sorts  of  vermin,  while  never  were 
the  vilest  vermin  half  so  ill-treated  by  the  human  race.  The 
crow,  for  example,  who  is  generally  regarded  as  a  most  sus- 
picious character,  has  had  great  injustice  done  him.  In  the 
spring,  when  the  ground  is  moist,  he  lives  in  a  state  of  the 
most  triumphant  luxury  on  grubs  :  he  eats  the  young  corn, 
it  is  true,  but  it  is  a  necessary  of  life  to  which  he  never 
resorts  except  when  his  supply  of  animal  food  is  shortened. 
After  the  corn  is  tolerably  grown,  he  has  nothing  more  to  do 
with  it  ;  and  in  any  stage  he  destroys  at  least  five  hundred 
pernicious  grubs  and  insects  for  every  blade  of  corn  which 
he  pillages  from  man.  In  the  southern  states,  he  is  regu- 
larly permitted  to  accompany  the  ploughman,  and  collects 
the  grubs  from  the  newly-opened  furrow  ;  his  life  is  thus 
secured  by  the  safest  of  all  tenures,  that  of  the  interest  of 
man  in  permitting  him  to  live. 

"  There  is  scarcely  a  farm  in  England  without  its  rookery; 
the  humid  atmosphere  multiplies  every  species  of  insect,  and 
those  birds  reward  man  for  his  forbearance  by  ridding  him 
of  legions  of  his  foes.  By  a  policy  like  that  which  dictated 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  they  have  occasional- 
ly been  exposed  to  the  mischievous  propensities  of  unruly 
boys,  who,  as  far  as  utility  is  concerned,  «ire  not  to  be  com- 
pared to  crows  ;  but  the  error  of  this  step  soon  became  ob- 
vious, and  they  are  now  received  with  a  universal  welcome. 
The  hawk  enjoys  a  doubtful  reputation  in  the  hen-roost  ;  he 
sometimes  destroys  the  chickens,  but  with  the  consistency 
of  man  does  not  like  to  see  his  infirmities  copied  by  an- 
other ;  and  by  way  of  compensation  demolishes  the  fox, 
which  eats  twenty  chickens  were  he  eats  but  one  ;  so  that 
it  is  hardly  the  part  of  wisdom  to  set  a  price  upon  his  head, 
while  the  fox,  a  hardened  knave,  is  not  honored  with  a  penal 
statute.  How  the  owl  came  to  be  included  in  this  black 
list,  it  is  difficult  to  conjecture  ;  he  is  a  grave,  reflecting 
bird,  who  has  nothing  to  do  with  man,  except  to  benefit  him 
by  eating  weasels,  foxes,  raccoons,  rats,   and  mice,  a  sin  for 


AND    RURAL  ECONOMIST.  !295 

which  most  housekeepers  will  readily  forgive  him.  In  some 
parts  of  Europe  he  is  kept  in  families,  like  the  cat,  whom 
he  equals  in  patience  and  surpasses  in  alertness.  Another 
of  these  birds,  the  blackbird,  is  the  avowed  enemy  of  grubs, 
like  the  crow  ;  in  the  middle  states,  the  farmer  knows  the 
value  of  his  company  to  pluck  them  from  the  furrow  ;  and 
while  other  less  pains-taking  birds  collect  the  vermin  from 
the  surface,  his  investigations  are  more  profound,  and  he 
digs  to  the  depth  of  several  inches  in  order  to  discover  them. 
When  the  insects  are  no  longer  to  be  found,  he  eats  the  corn, 
as  well  he  may,  but  even  then  asks  but  a  moderate  compen- 
sation for  his  former  services.  Five  hundred  blackbirds  do 
less  injury  to  the  corn  than  a  single  squirrel.  The  last  upon 
the  catalogue  of  persecuted  birds  is  the  blue-jay.  Whoever 
watches  him  in  the  garden  will  see  him  descend  incessantly 
from  the  branches,  pouncing  every  time  upon  the  grub,  his 
enemy  and  ours. 

"We  have  already  seen,  that  the  act  to  which  we  have 
referred  protects  some  birds  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  ; 
among  others,  the  robin,  who  lives  on  insects  and  worms, 
and  has  no  taste  for  vegetable  diet,  and  the  lark,  who  is  ex- 
tremely useful  in  his  way.  The  only  wonder  is,  that  it 
should  have  been  thought  expedient  to  allow  them  to  be  shot 
in  any  season.  The  quail,  another  of  the  privileged  class, 
has  no  title  to  be  named  in  company  with  the  others  ;  in  the 
planting  ti(ne,  he  makes  more  havoc  than  a  regiment  of 
crows,  without  atoning  for  his  misdeeds  by  demolishing  a 
single  grub.  Nor  is  the  partridge  a  much  more  scrupulous 
respecter  of  the  rights  of  property  ;  though,  as  he  lives  in 
comparative  retirement,  he  succeeds  in  preserving  a  better 
name  for  honesty. 

"There  are  some  of  our  most  familiar  birds,  of  which  a 
word  may  here  be  said.  Every  body  has  seen  the  little 
goldfinch  on  the  thistle  by  the  way-side,  and  wondered,  per- 
haps, that  his  taste  should  lead  him  to  so  thorny  a  luxury  ; 
but  he  is  all  this  while  engaged  in  devouring  the  seeds, 
which  but  for  him  would  overrun  the  grounds  of  every  far- 
mer. Even  the  bob-o'-link,  a  most  conceited  coxcomb,  who 
steals  with  all  imaginable  grace,  destroys  millions  of  the 
insects  which  annoy  the  farmer  most.  All  the  little  birds, 
in  fact,  which  are  seen  about  the  blossoms  of  the  trees,  are 
doing  us  the  same  service  in  their  own  way. 

"  Perhaps  there  is  no  bird  which  is  considered  more  decid- 
edly wanting   in  principle  than  the  woodpecker  ;   and,   cer- 


296  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

tainly,  so  far  as  man  is  concerned,  there  is  none  more  con- 
scientious. So  long  as  a  dead  tree  can  be  found  for  his  nest, 
he  will  not  trouble  himself  to  bore  into  a  living  one  ;  what- 
ever wounds  he  makes  upon  the  living  are  considered  by 
foreign  gardeners  as  an  advantage  to  the  tree.  The  sound 
tree  is  not  the  object  ;  he  is  in  pursuit  of  insects  and  their 
larvae.  In  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  forests  to  a  vast  ex- 
tent hnve  been  destroyed  by  an  insect,  which  would  seem  as 
capable  of  lifting  a  tree  as  of  destroying  it.  The  people 
were  alarmed  by  the  visitation,  and  sagaciously  laid  the 
mischief  at  the  door  of  the  woodpecker,  until  they  found 
that  they  had  confounded  the  bailiff  with  the  thief 

"  The  injury  arising  from  the  loss  of  a  single  crop  is  hard- 
ly to  be  estimated.  The  experience  which  is  taught  us  by 
our  own  misfortune  is  very  dearly  bought  ;  and  we  think 
that  if  we  can  derive  it  from  others,  — if,  for  example,  we 
can  learn  from  the  ornithologist  the  means  of  preventing 
such  injury,  as  in  many  instances  we  may,  — the  dictates  of 
economy  combine  with  those  of  taste,  and  warn  us  not  to 
neglect  the  result  of  his  researches." 

It  was  remarked  by  Colonel  Powel,  that  "  instead  of  being 
regaled  by  the  whistling  robin  and  chirping  bluebird,  busily 
employed  in  guarding  us  from  that  which  no  human  fore- 
sight or  labor  is  enabled  to  avert,  our  ears  are  assailed,  our 
persons  are  endangered,  our  fences  are  broken,  our  crops  are 
trodden  down,  our  cattle  are  lacerated,  and  our  flocks  are 
disturbed  by  the  idle  shooter,  regardless  alike  of  the  expen- 
sive attempts  of  the  experimental  farmer,  or  of  the  stores  of 
the  laboring  husbandman  ;  whilst  all  the  energies  of  his 
frame  and  the  aim  of  his  skill  are  directed  towards  the  mur- 
der of  a  few  little  birds,  worthless  when  obtained.  The  in- 
juries which  are  immediately  committed  by  himself  and  his 
dogs  are  small,  compared  with  the  multiplied  effects  of  the 
myriads  of  insects  which  would  be  destroyed  by  the  animals 
whereof  they  are  the  natural  prey."' 


BUSHES.  In  many  parts  of  our  country,  the  pasture 
grounds  are  infested,  and  often  overrun  with  noxious  shrubs  ; 
this  is  the  most  slovenly  part  of  our  husbandry,  and  ought 
to  be  cured. 

Eradicating  them,  says  Deane,  requires  so  much  labor, 
that  farmers  are  most  commonly  content  with  cutting  them 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST..  297 

once  in  a  few  years.  But  the  more  cuttings  they  survive, 
the  longer  Hved  they  are  apt  to  be,  and  the  harder  to  kill, 
as  the  roots  continually  gain  strength. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  cutting  bushes  in  the  summer 
will  do  more  towards  destroying  them  than  doing  it  in  any 
other  season,  particularly  in  August.  Other  circumstances 
being  equal,  the  wettest  weather  is  best  for  destroying  shrubs 
by  cutting.  Spreading  plaster  on  ground  where  bushes  have 
been  cut  may  tend  to  check  their  re-sprouting,  by  encourag- 
ing the  growth  of  grass. 

It  is  said  to  be  a  good  method  of  destroying  bushes,  to  cut 
them  with  hoes  close  to  the  surface,  when  the  ground  is 
frozen  hard  ;  and  that  more  may  be  destroyed  in  a  day  in 
this  way  than  in  the  usual  method  of  cutting  with  a  bush- 
scythe. 

Bushes  which  grow  in  clusters,  as  alder.  Sec,  may  be  ex- 
peditiously pulled  up  by  oxen  ;  and  this  is  an  effectual  way 
to  subdue  them. 

Elder  is  considered  harder  to  subdue  than  almost  any 
other  kind  of  bush  ;  mowing  them  five  times  in  a  season,  it 
is  said,  will  not  kill  them.  The  roots  of  the  shrub-oak  will 
not  be  killed  but  by  digging  them  out. 

To  destroy  bushes  in  swamps,  flooding  two  or  three  sum- 
mers is  the  most  approved  method.  But  if  this  is  not  con- 
venient, draining  will  so  alter  the  nature  of  the  soil,  that  the 
shrubs  which  it  naturally  produced  before  will  not  be  any 
longer  nourished  by  it  ;   and  one  cutting  may  be  suthcient. 

After  all,  extirpation,  by  digging  them  out,  and  by  fire,  is 
cheapest  and  most  effectual.  —  Farmer's  Guide. 


IRRIGATION.  The  following  Essay,  by  Dr.  Jeremiah 
Spofford,  is  from  the  "Transactions  of  the  Essex  Agricul- 
tural Society." 

"  Some  degree  of  knowledge  of  what  constitutes  the  food 
of  plants  seems  indispensable  to  any  well-conducted  system 
of  producing  them  in  the  greatest  perfection  ;  and  such 
knowledge  seems  most  likely  to  be  obtained  by  minutely  ex- 
amining their  structure,  and  carefully  observing  the  manner 
of  their  growth. 

"  Plants  constitute  one  of  the  great  divisions  of  organic 
life,  and  one  formed  or  constituted  by  systems  of  fibres  and 
vessels,  and  endowed  with   certain   powers   and   appetences 


298  •   THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

which  place  them  at  a  greater  remove  above  unorganized 
matter  than  they  are  below  animal  life  ;  and  appropriate 
nourishment  is  elaborated,  and  a  complete  circulation  is  car- 
ried on,  to  the  minutest  extremity,  in  a  manner  extremely  an- 
alogous to  the  circulation  which  is  carried  on  in  the  arteries 
and  veins  of  the  most  perfect  animals  ;  and  the  apparent 
intelligence  with  which  plants  seek  for  nourishment,  light, 
air,  and  support,  appears  in  some  instances  to  bear  a  strong 
resemblance  to  perception  and  knowledge  ;  and  the  circula- 
tion of  fluids  in  the  vessels  of  plants  and  animals  appears  to 
be  carried  on  much  on  the  same  principles,  and  is  perfectly 
involuntary  in  both. 

"The  indispensable  agency  of  water,  in  constituting  the 
fluids,  and  carrying  on  the  circulation  in  these  systems  of 
vessels,  has  been  universally  acknowledged  ;  and  could  not 
be  overlooked  by  the  most  careless  observer,  while  he  saw 
innumerable  instances  in  which  plants  wither  and  dry  for 
want  of  this  substance.  But  while  this  universal  agency  has 
been  acknowledged,  it  is  believed  that  a  very  inferior  office 
has  been  assigned  to  it  from  that  which  it  really  performs. 
It  has  been  considered  as  the  mere  vehicle  which  carried 
and  deposited  the  nutritious  particles  of  other  substances, 
while  it  in  reality  was  contributing  much  the  largest  portion 
of  the  actual  nourishment  to  the  plants  which  annually  clothe 
our  earth  in  living  green. 

"  If  this  idea  is  correct,  then  he  who  possesses  water  at 
his  command  with  which  to  supply  his  plants  at  pleasure,  or 
who  has  a  soil  adapted  to  attract  and  retain  moisture  in 
suitable  quantities,  possesses  a  mine  of  inexhaustible  wealth, 
from  which  he  can  draw  at  pleasure,  in  proportion  to  his 
industry  and  his  wants. 

"  In  proof  of  the  abstract  principle  that  water  constitutes 
in  a  very  large  proportion  the  food  of  plants,  I  may  be  al- 
lowed to  mention  one  or  two  accurate  experiments  of  dis- 
tinguished philosophers  upon  the  subject,  which  appear  to 
me  to  be  quite  decisive  on  the  case. 

"  '  Mr.  Boyle  dried  in  an  oven  a  quantity  of  earth  proper 
for  vegetation,  and  after  carefully  weighing  it,  planted  in  it 
the  seed  of  a  gourd  ;  he  watered  it  with  pure  rain-water,  and 
it  produced  a  plant  which  weighed  fourteen  pounds,  though 
the  earth  producing  it  had  suffered  no  sensible  diminution.' 

"  '  A  willow  tree  was  planted  by  Van  Helmont  in  a  pot, 
containing  a  thousand  pounds  of  earth.  This  plant  was 
watered    with  distilled  water  or  pure  rain-water  ;    and  the 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  299 

vessel  so  covered  as  to  exclude  all  solid  matter.  At  the  end 
of  five  years,  iiijon  taking  out  tlie  plant,  he  found  it  had  in- 
creased in  weight  one  hundred  and  nineteen  pounds,  though 
the  earth  had  lost  only  two  ounces  of  its  original  weight.' 

"The  experiments  of  Mr.  Cavendish  and  Dr.  Priestley 
have  sufficiently  proved,  that  vegetables  have  the  power  of 
decomposing  water  and  converting  it  into  such  fluids  as  they 
need  for  circulation  in  their  own  vessels  ;  and  that  they 
elaborate  from  this  substance  such  juices  and  fruits  as  they 
are  by  nature  calculated  to  produce. 

"  The  great  effect  which  is  so  frequently  observed  to 
follow  the  formation  of  ditches  from  the  road-sides  on  to 
mowing-ground,  is,  no  doubt,  in  part,  to  be  attributed  to  the 
manure  which  is  thereby  washed  on  to  the  ground,  but  is 
also  in  part  owing  to  the  more  copious  supply  of  water  which 
it  thereby  receives. 

"That  pure  water  is  capable  of  producing  similar  efTects, 
I  have  the  following  experiments  to  prove  : 

"  Several  years  ago,  when  resident  with  my  father  on  his 
farm  at  Rowley,  I  labored  hard  to  divert  a  stream,  which  fell 
into  a  miry  swamp,  from  its  usual  course  across  a  piece  of 
dry  upland.  The  stream  was  pure  spring-water,  which  is- 
sued between  the  hills  about  fifty  rods  above,  running  but 
just  far  enough  to  acquire  the  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere, but  without  receiving  any  more  fertilizing  quality  than 
was  obtained  in  passing  through  a  pasture  in  a  rocky  chan- 
nel ;  the  effisct,  however,  was  to  double  the  quantity  of 
grass.  The  same  stream  I  again  diverted  from  its  course, 
about  forty  rods  below,  after  it  had  filtered  through  a  piece 
of  swamp  or  meadow-ground,  and  with  the  same  effect  ;  and 
again,  still  lower  down  its  course,  I  succeeded  in  turnino-  it 
on  to  a  piece  of  high  peat-meadow,  which  had  usually  pro- 
duced but  very  little  of  any  thing  ;  and  the  effect  was,  that 
more  than  double  of  the  quantity  of  grass  was  produced,  and 
that  of  a  much  better  quality.  I  was  led  to  this  latter  ex- 
periment by  observing,  that  a  strip  of  meadow  which  natural- 
ly received  the  water  of  this  run,  and  over  which  it  spread 
for  several  rods  in  width  without  any  particular  channel,  was 
annually  much  more  productive  than  any  other  part  of  the 
meadow. 

"  But  the  best  experiment,  and  on  the  largest  scale  of  any 
which  I  have  known,  was  made  by  my  late  father-in-law, 
deacon  Eleazer  SpofTord,  then  resident  at  JafTrey,  New 
Hampshire.     A  letter  from  Rev.  Luke  A.   SpofFord,  in  an- 


300  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

swer  to  my  inquiry  on  this  subject,  observes  :  '  My  father 
commenced  the  experiment  as  early  as  the  year  1800,  and 
continued  it  till  1820,  or  to  the  time  when  he  sold  his  farm. 
The  last  ten  years  of  his  time  he  flashed  perhaps  twenty 
acres  ;  and  it  produced,  I  should  think,  twice  as  much  in 
common  seasons,  and  three  times  as  much  in  dry  seasons,  as 
it  would  have  done  without  watering.  This  land  would 
hold  out  to  yield  a  good  crop  twice  as  long  as  other  land  of 
the  same  quality,'  (that  is,  I  presume,  without  flowing.) 
*  In  dry  weather  he  watered  it  every  night,  and  the  produce 
was  good,  very  good.' 

"  i  am  acquainted  with  the  lot  of  land  which  was  the  sub- 
ject of  this  experiment.  It  is  a  northern  declivity,  and  rather 
a  light  and  sandy  soil,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  Contoocook 
river  ;  and  the  water  used  was  that  of  the  river,  about  one 
mile  below  its  formation  by  the  junction  of  two  streams,  one 
from  a  large  pond  of  several  hundred  acres  in  Rindge,  and 
the  other  a  mountain  stream,  formed  by  innumerable  springs 
issuing  from  the  skirts  of  the  Monadnock. 

"  From  the  foregoing  premises  may  we  not  conclude,  that 
water  performs  a  more  important  office  in  the  growth  and 
formation  of  plants  than  has  generally  been  supposed  ;  and 
that  it  not  only  serves  to  convey  nourishment,  but  that  it  is 
itself  elaborated  into  nourishment,  and  thereby  constitutes 
the  solid  substance  ?  and  we  may  further  conclude,  that  eve- 
ry farmer  should  survey  his  premises,  and  turn  those  streams 
which  now  are  often  useless  or  hurtful  on  to  lands  where 
they  are  capable  of  diflTusing  fertility,  abundance,  and 
wealth. 

"It  appears,  further,  that  the  immense  fertility  of  Egypt 
is  not  so  much  owing  to  the  alluvial  deposit  brought  down 
by  the  annual  inundation,  as  to  the  canals  and  reservoirs 
in  which  the  waters  are  retained,  to  be  spread  over  the 
lands  during  the  succeeding  drought,  at  the  will  of  the  cul- 
tivator. 

"  1{,  according  to  the  experiments  of  Boyle  and  Van  Hel- 
mont,  almost  the  whole  food  of  plants  is  derived  from  water, 
then  the  principal  use  of  the  various  manures  is  to  attract 
moisture  and  stimulate  the  roots  of  plants  to  absorb  and 
elaborate  it  ;  and  we  have  also  reason  to  think  that  lands  are 
much  more  injured  and  impoverished  by  naked  exposure  to 
heat  and  wind,  and  washing  by  water  that  runs  off"  and  is 
lost,  than  it  is  by  producing  abundant  crops. 

"  In  the   present  state  of  population,  nothing  more   could 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  301 

be  expected  or  desired,  than  that  every  farmer  should  make 
use  of  such  means  as  the  small  streams  in  his  vicinity  may 
afford  ;  but  in  a  densely  peopled  country,  like  Egypt  in 
former  ages,  or  China  at  present,  it  should  doubtless  be  one 
of  the  first  enterprises  of  a  good  government  to  take  our 
large  rivers  above  their  falls  and  turn  them  off  into  canals 
for  the  benefit  of  agriculture." 


WOODLAND.  Ground  covered  with  wood  or  trees. 
They  are  mostly  designed  for  fuel  and  timber.  In  felling 
them,  care  should  be  taken  to  injure  the  young  growth  as 
little  as  possible.  Firewood,  as  well  as  timber,  should  be 
felled  when  the  sap  is  down  ;  otherwise  it  will  hiss  and  fry 
upon  the  fire,  and  not  burn  freely,  although  it  should  be  ever 
so  long  dried.  To  thicken  a  forest,  or  to  increase  the  num- 
ber of  trees  in  a  wood-lot,  it  should  be  well  fenced,  and  no 
cattle  be  permitted  to  be  in  it.  And  something  may  be  done, 
if  needful,  by  layers  and  cuttings.  —  Deane. 

The  practice  of  the  populous  nations  of  Europe,  whose 
forests  have  been  cut  off  centuries  ago,  and  who  are  com- 
'pelled  to  resort  to  measures  of  the  strictest  economy  to  sup- 
ply themselves  with  fuel,  ought  to  have  great  weight  with 
us.  France,  in  an  especial  manner,  ought  to  be  looked  up 
to  for  wise  lessons  on  this  subject.  Her  vast  and  thickly 
settled  population,  her  numerous  manufactures,  her  poverty 
in  mineral  coal,  the  eminence  which  she  has  attained  in  all 
economical  arts,  entitle  her  to  great  respect.  It  is  the  prac- 
tice of  the  French  people  not  to  cut  off  their  woods  oftener 
than  once  in  twenty  or  twenty-five  years,  and  by  law,  when 
they  are  cut  over,  the  owner  is  obliged  to  cut  the  tchole 
smooth,  with  the  exception  of  a  very  few  trees,  which  the 
officers  of  the  government  had  marked  to  be  spared  for 
larger  growth.  Without  giving  any  opinion  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  the  direct  interference  of  the  government  on  such 
a  topic,  we  should  say  that  the  example  proves,  that  in  the 
opinion  of  the  French  scientific  and  practical  men,  it  is  ex- 
pedient when  woodlands  are  cut  that  they  should  be  cut 
smooth,  in  order  that  the  new  growth  might  start  together, 
not  overshaded  by  other  trees  of  larger  growth.  We  have 
no  favorable  opinion  of  the  utility  of  cutting  down  trees  in  a 
scattered  manner,  as  thov  appear  to  fail,  and  still  less  of 
26 


302  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

planting  acorns  in  thinner  spots  of  the  forest.      The  growth 
thus  produced  must  remain  for  ever  feeble.  —  Lowell. 

A  valuable  paper  by  the  Hon.  John  Welles,  in  "  The 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository,"  recommends  cut- 
ting hard-wood  trees  between  forty  and  fifty  years  of  age  ; 
and  the  writer  states,  that  "though  trees  may  shoot  up  in 
height  by  standing  longer,  yet  the  period  of  the  most  rapid 
vegetation  is  mostly  over,  and  by  this  means  much  of  the 
under-growth  is  necessarily  destroyed."  Mr.  Welles  is  of 
opinion,  that  in  cutting  over  a  wood-lot  to  obtain  fuel,  it  is 
best  to  take  the  whole  growth  as  you  proceed.  He  observes, 
that  "  we  have  been  condemned  as  evincing  a  want  of  taste 
in  cutting  off  our  forests  without  leaving  what  it  would  take 
half  a  century  to  produce,  — -a  sliade  near  where  it  is  pro- 
posed to  erect  buildings.  The  fact  is,  that  trees  of  original 
growth  have  their  roots  mostly  in  the  upper  stratum  of  earth, 
and  near  the  surface.  A  tree  acts  upon  its  roots  and  is  act- 
ed upon  by  the  wind,  sustaining  in  common  with  the  whole 
forest  the  force  of  this  element,  and  it  becomes  accommo- 
dated or  naturalized  to  its  pressure.  But  when  left  alone  or 
unsustained,  it  is  borne  down  by  the  first  gale,  often  to  the 
injury  of  property  and  even  of  life."  The  "  Farmer's  Assis- 
tant" likewise  says,  "  if  woods  are  old  and  decaying,  the  bet- 
ter way  is  to  cut  all  off,  as  you  want  to  use  the  wood,  and 
let  an  entire  new  growth  start  up,  which  will  grow  more 
rapidly." 


INSECTS.  It  would  far  transcend  our  limits  to  give 
even  a  brief  description  of  the  various  sorts  of  insects  which 
injure  gardens,  cultivated  fields.  Sec,  and  destroy  the  best 
productions  of  out  soil.  We  shall,  therefore,  confine  our- 
selves to  stating,  briefly,  some  of  the  most  approved  modes 
of  counteracting  the  ravages  and  effecting  the  destruction 
of  a  few  of  those  which  are  most  injurious  to  the  cultivator. 

The  preventive  operations  are  those  of  the  best  culture, 
in  the  most  extensive  sense  of  the  term,  including  what  re- 
lates to  choice  of  seed  or  plant,  soil,  situation,  and  climate. 
If  these  are  carefully  attended  to,  it  will  seldom  happen  that 
any  species  of  insect  will  effect  serious  and  permanent  inju- 
ry. Vegetables  which  are  vigorous  and  thrifty  are  not  apt 
to  be  injured  bv  worms,  flies,  bugs,  &c.     Fall  ploughing,  by 


A.\D  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  303 

exposing  wornis,  grubs,  the  larvaj  of  bugs,  beetles,  &,c.  to 
the  intense  frosts  of  our  winters,  is  very  beneficial.  Insects 
may  be  annoyed,  and  oftentimes  their  complete  destruction 
eflected,  by  sprinkling  over  them,  by  means  of  a  syringe, 
watering-pot,  or  garden  engine,  simple  water,  soap-suds, 
tobacco-water,  decoctions  of  elder,  especially  of  the  dwarf 
kind,  of  walnut  leaves,  bitter  and  acrid  herbs,  pepper,  lye 
of  wood  ashes,  or  solutions  of  pot  and  pearl-ashes,  water 
impregnated  with  salt,  tar,  turpentine,  &.c.  ;  or  they  may 
be  dusted  with  sulphur,  quicklime,  and  other  acrid  sub- 
stances. Loudon  says,  "  Saline  substances,  mixed  with  wa- 
ter, are  injurious  to  most  insects  with  tender  skins,  as  the 
worm  and  slug  ;  and  hot  water,  where  it  can  be  applied 
without  injuring  vegetation,  is  equally,  if  not  more  power- 
fully, injurious.  Water  heated  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
or  one  hundred  and  thirty  degrees  will  not  injure  plants 
whose  leaves  are  expanded,  and  in  some  degree  hardened  ; 
and  water  at  two  hundred  degrees  or  upwards  may  be 
poured  over  leafless  plants.  The  effects  of  insects  may  also 
be  palliated  on  one  species  of  plant  by  presenting  to  them 
another  which  they  prefer  :  thus  wasps  are  said  to  prefer 
carrots,  the  berries  of  the  yew,  and  the  honey  of  the  hoya, 
to  grapes  ;  honey,  or  sugared  water,  to  ripe  fruit,  and  so  on. 
One  insect  or  animal  rnay  also  be  set  to  eat  another  ;  as 
ducks  for  slugs  and  worms,  turkeys  for  the  same  purpose, 
and  caterpillars  and  ants  for  aphides,  and  so  on." 

The  Rev.  iNIr.  Falconer,  one  of  the  correspondents  of 
"  The  Bath  Agricultural  Society,"  strongly  recommends 
soap-suds,  both  as  a  manure  and  antidote  against  insects. 
He  observes,  that  "this  mixture  of  an  oil  and  an  alkali  has 
been  more  generally  known  than  adopted  as  a  remedy 
against  the  insects  which  infest  wall  fruit-trees.  It  will  dis- 
lodge and  destroy  the  insects  which  have  already  formed 
their  nests  and  bred  among  the  leaves.  When  used  in  the 
early  part  of  the  year,  it  seems  to  prevent  the  insects  from 
settling  upon  them."  He  prefers  soap-suds  to  lime-water, 
because  lime  soon  "  loses  its  causticity,  and  with  that  its 
efficacy,  by  exposure  to  air,  and  must,  consequently,  be 
frequently  applied  ;  and  to  the  dredging  of  the  leaves  with 
the  fine  dust  of  wood  ashes  and  lime,  because  the  same 
effect  is  produced  by  the  mixture,  without  the  same  labor, 
and  is  obtained  without  any  expense."  He  directs  to  make 
use  of  a  common  garden-pump  for  sprinkling  trees  with 
soap-suds,  and  says,  if  the  water  of  a  washing  cannot  be  had, 


304  THE   COMPLETE   FABMER 

a  quantity  of  potash  dissolved  in  water  may  be  substituted  ; 
and  that  the  washing  of  the  trees  with  soap-suds  twice  a 
week,  for  three  or  four  weeks  in  the  spring,  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  secure  them  from  aphides,  kc. 

Other  modes  of  counteracting  the  effects  of  insects  are 
pointed  out,  in  treating  of  the  plants  which  are  most  liable 
to  be  injured  by  them.  We  shall,  however,  make  some  re- 
marks on  a  few  of  those  which  are  most  common  and  injuri- 
ous to  the  interests  of  the  cultivator. 

Canker-icorm.  We  shall  not  attempt  to  give  either  a  de- 
scription, or  the  natural  history  of  the  canker-worm,  but 
refer  to  Prof  Peck's  Memoir  on  the  subject,  originally 
published  in  "  The  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository," 
and  direct  our  attention  exclusively  to  the  remedies  which 
have  been  used  or  suggested  to  preserve  fruit-trees  from 
this  formidable  enemy. 

The  female  of  this  insect  comes  out  of  the  ground  late  in 
the  fall,  early  in  the  spring,  or,  sometimes,  during  a  period 
of  mild,  open  weather  in  winter.  Those  which  rise  in 
autumn  or  in  winter  are  less  numerous  than  those  which  as- 
cend in  spring  ;  but,  being  very  prolific,  they  do  much  inju- 
ry. One  method  of  preventing  the  ravages  of  the  worm  is, 
to  bar  the  ascent  of  the  females  up  the  stem  of  the  tree. 
This  has  generally  been  attempted  by  tarnng,  of  which 
there  are  several  modifications  : 

1.  A  strip  of  linen  or  canvas  is  put  round  the  body  of 
the  tree,  before  the  females  begin  their  ascent,  and  well 
smeared  with  tar.  The  insects,  in  attempting  to  pass  this 
barrier,  stick  fast  and  perish.  But  this  process,  to  complete 
the  desired  effect,  must  be  commenced  about  the  1st  of  No- 
vember, and  the  tarring  continued,  when  the  weather  is  mild 
enough  to  permit  the  worms  to  emerge  from  the  ground,  till 
the  latter  end  of  May,  or  till  the  time  of  their  ascent  is  past. 
It  is  necessary  to  fill  the  crevices  in  the  bark  with  clay  mor- 
tar, before  the  strip  of  linen  or  canvas  is  put  on,  that  the 
insects  may  not  pass  under  it.  Having  put  on  the  strip, 
which  should  be  at  least  three  inches  wide,  draw  it  close, 
fasten  the  ends  together  strongly,  then  tie  a  thumb-rope  of 
tow  round  the  tree,  close  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  strip.  The 
design  of  this  is,  to  prevent  the  tar  from  running  down  the 
bark  of  the  tree,  which  would  injure  it.  It  should  be 
renewed  in  moderate  weather,  once  a  day,  without  fail.  The 
best  time  is  soon  after  sunset,  because  the  insects  are  wont 
to  pass  up  in  the  evening,  and  the  tar  will  not  harden  so 
much  in  the  night  as  the  dav. 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  305 

2.  Another  mode  of  tarring  is,  to  take  two  pretty  wide 
pieces  of  board,  plane  them,  make  semicircular  notches 
in  each,  fitting  them  to  the  stem  or  body  of  the  tree, 
and  fasten  them  together  securely  at  the  ends,  so  that  the 
most  violent  storms  may  not  displace  them.  The  crevices 
betwixt  the  boards  and  the  tree  may  be  easily  stopped  with 
rags  or  tow  ;  then  smear  the  under  sides  of  the  boards  with 
tar.  The  tar,  being  defended  from  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun,  will  hold  its  tenacity  the  longer,  and,  therefore,  weed 
not  be  frequently  renewed.  The  trees  in  this  way  will  be 
less  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  drippings  of  tar,  by  leaving 
a  margin  of  two  or  three  inches  on  those  parts  of  the  boards 
which  are  next  to  the  trees,  to  which  no  tar  is  applied. 

3.  A  gentleman  informs  us,  that  in  Plymouth,  Massachu- 
setts, they  make  use  of  the  following  mixture  as  a  substitute 
for  tar  in  preserving  fruit-trees  against  canker-worms,  viz.  : 
White  varnish,  soft  soap,  and  whale  oil,  one-third  of  each  to 
be  mixed  and  applied  as  tar  is  usually.  This  mixture  is  not 
soon  hardened  by  the  weather,  and  does  not  injure  tjie  trees. 
Another  simple  mode  of  preventing  the  ascent  of  the  insects 
is,  to  wind  a  band  of  refuse  flax  or  swingle-tow  round  the 
tree,  and  stick  on  the  band  burdock  or  chestnut  burs,  set  so 
closely  together  that  worms  cannot  pass  between  them. 

The  "Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository,"  (Vol. 
III.  No.  4,)  contains  some  remarks  on  the  canker-worm,  by 
the  Hon.  John  Lowell,  president  of  "The  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  Society,"  from  which  the  following  is  ex- 
tracted : 

"  I  had  the  turf  dug  in  around  sixty  apple-trees,  and  the 
earth  laid  smooth.  I  then  took  three  hogsheads  of  effete,  or 
air-slacked  lime,  and  strewed  it  an  inch  thick  round  my 
trees,  to  the  extent  of  two  or  three  feet  from  the  roots,  so 
that  the  whole  diameter  of  the  opening  was  from  four  to  six 
feet. 

"  I  tarred  these  trees,  as  well  as  the  others,  and  although 
I  had  worms  or  grubs  on  most  that  were  not  limed,  I  did  not 
catch  a  single  grub  where  the  trees  were  limed. 

"  I  do  not  speak  with  confidence.  I  am,  however,  strong- 
ly encouraged  to  believe  the  remedy  perfect.  It  was  as- 
certained by  Professor  Peck,  that  the  insect  seldom  descend- 
ed into  the  ground  at  a  greater  distance  than  three  or  four 
feet  from  the  trunk,  and  to  the  depth  of  four  inches,  or  that 
the  greater  part  come  within  that  distance.  The  lime  is 
known  to  be  destructive  of  all  animal  substances,  and  I  have 
26* 


306  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

little  doubt,  that  it  actually  decomposes  and  destroys  the 
insect  in  the  chrysalis  state  ;  at  least,  I  hope  that  this  is  the 
case. 

"  There  are  many  reasons  which  should  encourage  a  repe- 
tition of  this  experiment.  The  digging  round  the  trees  is 
highly  useful  to  them,  while  tarring  is  very  injurious.  The 
expense  is  not  great.  A  man  can  dig  round  fiftv  trees  in 
one  day.  The  lime  is  a  most  salutary  manure  to  the  tree. 
After  the  spot  has  been  once  opened  and  limed,  the  labor 
of  keeping  it  open  will  not  be  great.  Three  hogsheads  of 
air-slacked  lime,  or  the  sweepings  of  a  lime-store,  will  suf- 
tice  for  fifty  trees,  and  will  cost  three  dollars.  As  it  is  done 
but  once  a  year,  I  think  it  cannot  be  half  so  expensive  as 
tarring. 

"  I  repeat  it,  that  I  mention  my  experiments  with  great 
diffidence,  as  being  the  first  of  my  own  knowledge.  It  may 
induce  several  persons  to  try  it  in  different  places,  and  where 
trees  are  surrounded  with  others  which  are  treated  different- 
ly. All  I  pray  is,  that  it  may  prove  successful  and  relieve 
us  from  this  dreadful  scourge,  which  defaces  our  country, 
while  it  impoverishes  and  disappoints  the  farmer." 

The  remedies  proposed  by  Professor  Peck  were,  1st.  Turn- 
ing up  the  ground  carefully,  in  October,  as  far  as  the 
branches  of  a  tree  extend,  to  half  a  spade's  depth,  or  five 
inches,  so  as  completely  to  invert  the  surface.  A  great 
number  of  chrysalids  would  thus  be  exposed  to  the  air  and 
sun,  and  of  course  destroyed.  2dly.  Breaking  the  clods, 
and  smoothing  the  surface  with  a  rake,  and  passing  a  heavy 
roller  over  it,  so  as  to  make  it  very  hard,  and  without  cracks. 
In  grass  grounds  the  sods  should  be  turned  with  the  grass 
side  down,  and  placed  side  by  side,  so  as  to  be  rolled.  The 
winter's  frosts  would  heave  and  crack  a  smooth  surface,  but 
it  might  be  smoothed  and  hardened  by  the  roller,  or  by  other 
means,  in  March,  with  much  less  trouble,  time,  and  expense, 
than  roiling  requires.  As  lime,  when  slacked,  is  reduced  to 
an  impalpable  powder,  and  is  thus  well  adapted  to  close  the 
openings  in  the  surface,  Mr.  Peck  is  inclined  to  think  its 
good  effects  are  produced  this  way  as  well  as  by  its  caustic 
qualities.  —  Thacher^s  Orchardist,  p.  93. 

John  Kenrick,  Esq.,  of  Newton,  Massachusetts,  propos- 
ed, between  the  time  in  June  after  the  worms  had  disappear- 
ed and  the  iOth  of  October,  to  take  the  whole  of  the  soil 
surrounding  the  trees,  to  the  extent  at  least  of  four  feet  from 
the  trunk,  and  to  a  suitable  depth,  and  cart  it  away  to  a  dis- 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  307 

tance  from  any  trees  which  the  canker-worms  are  in  the 
habit  of  feeding  on  ;  and  returning  an  equal  quantity  of  com- 
post or  rich  earth  intermixed  with  manure. 

A  writer  for  "The  New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  III.  p. 
327,)  states  a  case  of  an  orchard  having  been  preserved 
from  canker-worms  by  means  of  a  large  number  of  locust- 
trees,  equal  to  about  double  the  number  of  apple-trees. 

Mr.  Roland  Howard,  of  Easton,  Massachusetts,  observes, 
(New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  IV.  p.  391,)  that  "a  quantity 
of  lime  was  collected  from  the  sweepings  of  a  lime-store, 
and  spread  on  the  ground  around  a  certain  apple-tree,  some 
time  in  the  month  of  November  ;  (the  foliage  of  which  tree 
had  been  destroyed  by  the  canker-worm  the  preceding  sum- 
mer ;)  the  ground  being  in  a  pulverized  state,  the  lime  was 
spread  as  far  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree  as  the  drippings  from 
the  branches  extended  :  the  effect  was  stated  to  be  the  entire 
disappearance  of  the  worm,  and  an  increased  vigor  of  the 
tree."  The  same  writer  observes,  that  "  moving  the  earth 
with  a  plough  or  hoe,  late  in  November,  or  beginning  of 
December,  has  been  found  very  efficacious  in  destroying 
them."  This  last  mentioned  remedy,  if  it  will  always  prove 
efficient,  will  probably  be  the  cheapest  and  most  expedient. 
But  the  worm  must  be  capable  of  enduring  a  considerable 
degree  of  cold,  or  unerring  instinct  would  not  lead  it  from 
its  dormitory  in  November  (as  it  frequently  does)  to  brave 
the  rigors  of  winter  on  the  stem  or  branches  of  the  tree. 
We  are  inclined  to  believe,  as  well  as  to  hope,  that  the  ap- 
plication of  lime,  as  above  stated,  will  prove  effectual  :  and 
if  so,  it  will  probably  be  preferable  to  any  mode  of  applying 
tar,  or  attacking  the  enemy  above  ground. 

When  the  insects  have  ascended,  their  numbers  may  be 
lessened  by  jarring  or  shaking  the  body  or  limbs  of  the  tree, 
causing  them  to  suspend  themselves  by  the  threads  which 
they  spin  from  their  bodies,  and  striking  them  off  with  a 
stick.  It  is  said,  that  those  which  thus  fall  to  the  earth  do 
not  rise  again.  Whether  they  would  be  able  to  resist  the 
effects  of  a  sprinkling  with  soap-suds,  saline  or  bitter  infu- 
sions, &c.,  is  more  than  we  can  say  ;  but  we  wish  their 
powers  might  be  tested,  by  showering  them  with  those  mix- 
tures which  are  found  to  be  the  best  antidotes  against  other 
insects. 

Caterpillar.  "This  is  one  of  the  worst  enemies  to  an 
orchard  when  neglected  ;  but  easily  destroyed  by  a  little  at- 
tention.    In  the  spring,  when  the   nests  are  small  and  the 


308  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

insects  young  and  tender,  they  never  venture  abroad  in  the 
early  part  of  the  day,  when  the  dew  is  on  the  trees,  or  in 
bad  weather  ;  they  may  then  be  efTectually  destroyed  by 
crushing  them  in  the  nest.  This  attention,  continued  a  short 
time  every  spring,  will  destroy  those  in  existence,  and  will 
prevent  their  increase  in  future  years  :  if  left  till  grown 
strong,  they  wander  from  their  nests,  and  cannot  be  effectu- 
ally overcome  without  great  trouble  and  expense." —  Coxe, 
on  Fruit- Trees . 

The  Hon.  Timothy  Pickering,  in  a  letter  to  the  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  "  The  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
Society,"  has  recommended  an  implement  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  caterpillars.  It  is  made  by  inserting  some  hog's 
bristles  between  twisted  wires,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form 
a  cylindrical  brush,  which  will  present  bristles  on  every 
side.  This  is  attached  to  a  pole,  of  such  length  as  the  trees 
may  require,  and  the  caterpillars  are  brought  down  by  it, 
and  then  crushed.  Other  methods  have  been  proposed, 
such  as  casting  over  the  tree  a  few  handfuls  of  ashes,  in  the 
morning,  before  the  dew  is  dissipated  from  the  foliage,  or 
after  a  shower  of  rain.  A  strong  whitewash  of  fresh  stone- 
lime,  applied  by  the  means  of  a  mop,  or  sponge,  fixed  to  the 
end  of  a  pole,  strong  soap-suds,  spirits  of  turpentine,  a  little 
oil  of  any  kind,  particularly  blubber  oil,  are  likewise  fatal 
to  the  insects.  But,  perhaps,  the  most  effectual  remedy  is 
the  hand,  by  which  the  insects  may  easily  be  removed  at  an 
early  stage  ;  but  if  this  be  neglected,  it  is  thought  that  the 
next  best  remedy  is  the  use  of  Colonel  Pickering's  brush;  as 
above.  In  applying  either  of  these  remedies,  care  must  be 
taken  to  choose  that  part  of  the  day  when  the  caterpillars 
are  in  their  nests.  They  rarely  quit  them  till  nine  o'clock, 
and  generally  return  to  them  again  about  twelve. 

Curculio.  This  is  a  small  bug,  or  beetle,  which  perfo- 
rates the  young  fruit  of  the  pear,  apple,  and  all  stone  fruits, 
and  deposits  its  eggs  in  them.  The  eggs  soon  hatch,  and  a 
small  maggot  is  produced,  which  feeds  either  on  the  pulp  of 
the  fruit,  or  on  the  kernel  of  the  seed  ;  for  the  tastes  and 
habits  of  the  different  species  are  not  similar.  In  the  stone 
fruits,  this  injury  destroys  their  growth,  and  they  fall,  with 
the  little  enemy  within  them.  The  insect  retreats  into  the 
earth,  and  passes  the  winter  in  the  chrysalis  state,  and  comes 
forth  just  as  the  young  fruit  is  forming,  or  the  petals  of  the 
flowers  are  falling,  to  renew  its  mischievous  labors.  This 
insect  continues  its  depredations  from  the   1st  of  May  until 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  309 

autumn.  Dr.  James  Tilton,  of  Wilmington,  Delaware,  in 
an  article  on  this  subject,  published  in  the  American  editions 
of"  WilJich's  Domestic  Encyclopedia,"  observes,  that  "  our 
fruits,  collectively  estimated,  must  thereby  be  depreciated 
more  than  half  their  value  ;"  and  adds,  in  his  directions  for 
destroying  the  insect,  "  all  the  domestic  animals,  if  well 
directed,  contribute  to  this  purpose.  Hogs,  in  a  special 
manner,  are  qualified  for  the  work  of  extermination.  In 
large  orchards,  care  should  be  taken,  that  the  stock  of  hogs 
is  sufficient  to  eat  up  all  the  early  fruit  which  falls  from  May 
till  August.  This  precaution  will  be  more  especially  neces- 
sary in  large  peach  orchards  ;  for  otherwise,  when  the  hogs 
become  cloyed  with  the  pulp  of  the  peach,  they  will  let  it 
fall  out  of  their  mouths,  and  content  themselves  with  the 
kernel,  which  they  like  better  ;  and  thus  the  curculio, 
escaping  from  their  jaws,  may  hide  under  ground  till  next 
spring." 

"  The  ordinary  fowls  of  a  farm-yard  are  great  devourers 
of  beetles.  Poultry  in  general  are  regarded  as  carnivorous, 
in  the  summer,  and  therefore  cooped  some  time  before  they 
are  eaten.  Every  body  knows  with  what  avidity  ducks 
seize  on  the  tumble-bug,  (^scaraboeiis  carnifex,)  and  it  is  prob- 
able, the  curculio  is  regarded  by  all  fowls  as  an  equally  de- 
licious morsel.  Therefore  it  is,  that  the  smooth  stone  liuits, 
particularly,  succeed  much  better  in  lanes  and  yards,  where 
poultry  run  without  restraint,  than  in  gardens  and  other  in- 
closures,  where  fowls  are  excluded." 

Instead  of  turning  swine  into  orchards,  to  pick  up  the 
fruit  which  falls,  and  thus  destroy  the  worms  which  it  con- 
tains, it  will  often  be  found  most  expedient  to  gather  such 
fruit,  and  give  it  to  swine  in  pens,  Stc,  either  raw,  or,  what 
would  be  better,  boiled.  If  such  measures  were  generally 
taken  with  fruit  which  falls  spontaneously,  as  to  prevent  the 
insects,  which  generally  cause  it  to  drop  prematurely,  from 
escaping  into  the  ground,  the  worms,  which  destroy  one  half 
our  fruit,  and  very  much  deteriorate  a  considerable  part  of 
the  other  half,  would  soon  be  extirpated  from  our  orchards 
and  fruit-gardens. 

Aphis,  Plant-louse,  Fuceron,  or  Vine-fretter .  "  This  genus 
of  insects  comprises  many  species  and  varieties,  which  are 
so  denominated  from  the  plants  they  infest.  The  males  are 
winged,  and  the  females  without  wings  ;  they  are  viviparous, 
producing  their  young  alive,  in  the  spring  ;  and  also  ovipa- 
rous,  laying  eggs  in    autumn.      Water,   dashed  with  force 


310  THE  COMPLETE   FARMER 

from  a  syringe,  [or  garden  engine,]  will  prove  as  destructive 
to  tiiem  as  any  thing,  when  on  trees  ;  and  smaller  plants 
may  be  washed  with  lime-water,  with  tobacco-water,  with 
elder  leaves,  infused  in  water,  or  with  common  soap-suds, 
any  of  which  will  destroy  the  insects." — Loudon.  "Tie 
up  some  flour  of  sulphur  in  a  piece  of  muslin,  or  fine  linen, 
and  with  this  the  leaves  of  young  shoots  or  plants  should  be 
dusted,  or  it  may  be  thrown  on  them  by  means  of  a  common 
swan's-down  putF,  or  even  a  dredging  box.  Sulphur  has  also 
been  found  to  promote  the  health  of  plants,  on  which  it  was 
sprinkled,  and  that  peach  trees,  in  particular,  were  remark- 
ably improved  by  it."  —  Domestic  Kncyclopcdia.  "  In 
green-houses,  they  are  readily  destroyed  by  the  smoke  of 
tobacco,  or  of  sulphur  ;  but  in  the  open  air,  fumigation, 
though  much  in  vogue  many  years  since,  is  of  no  avail. 
The  best  remedy  is  the  simplest.  Soap-suds,  forcibly  ap- 
plied, will,  after  one  or  two  applications,  effectually  destroy 
them,  without  apparent  injury  to  the  plant."  —  Deane. 

A  writer  for  "  The  New  England  Farmer,"  (Vol.  III.  p. 
9,)  after  stating  a  number  of  experiments  with  soap-suds,  for 
destroying  aphides,  which  were  unsuccessful,  or  but  partial- 
ly succeeded,  says,  "  I  was  led  to  conclude,  that  it  is  not 
sufficient  to  wet  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves,  thinking  to 
make  them  disagreeable  or  poisonous  to  the  insect,  but  that 
they  must  be  well  drenched  or  immersed  in  the  suds.  I 
therefore  applied  again  the  same  lemedy  ;  but  with  this  dif- 
ference, —  instead  of  sprinkling  the  upper  side  of  the 
branches, I  carried  a  pailful  of  suds  from  tree  to  tree, and, bend- 
ing the  tops  of  small  trees,  and  the  branches  of  larger  ones, 
immersed  all  the  parts  infested  with  lice,  holding  them  in  the 
liquor  for  a  moment,  that  none  might  escape  being  well  wet. 
On  examining  the  trees,  the  next  day,  the  greater  part  of  the 
lice  were  destroyed.  It  was  found  necessary  to  repeat  the 
same  process  once  or  twice,  with  suds  not  too  weak, 
say  about  two  or  three  ounces  of  soap  to  a  gallon  of 
water."  Another  writer  in  the  same  paper,  (p.  10,)  says, 
"I  have  applied  soap-suds  to  my  apple-trees,  in  order  to 
kill  the  lice.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  me  to  say,  that  just 
sprinkling  them  with  suds  will  not  kill  them  ;  neither  will 
dipping  the  branches  which  are  infested  with  them  kill  them. 
But  dipping  and  holding  them  in,  as  long  as  I  can  con- 
veniently hold  my  breath,  will  destroy  every  one.  The  suds 
do  not  appear  to  injure  the  leaves.  I  tried  suds  made  on 
purpose,  and  suds  which  had  been  used  for  family  washing. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  311 

The  latter  answers  the  purpose  much  the  best."  It  is  pos- 
sible to  make  soap-suds  so  strong  as  to  kill  the  tender 
branches,  as  well  as  the  insects  which  infest  them.  The 
proportion  above  mentioned,  of  two  or  three  ounces  of  soap 
to  a  gallon  of  water,  is  probably  most  advisable. 

Cut-worm.  This  is  an  ash-colored  worm,  with  a  stripe  al- 
most black  on  its  back.  When  fully  grown,  it  is  about  the 
size  of  a  goosequill,  and  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
length.  They  are  very  apt  to  cut  offyoung  cabbages,  cauli- 
flowers, beets,  &c.  They  never  voluntarily  appear  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  in  the  day  time,  but  may  be  found 
about  an  inch  below  it.  In  the  night  they  make  their  ex- 
cursions, cut  off  the  stems  of  young  plants,  just  at  the  top  of 
the  ground,  and  again  bury  themselves. 

Dr.  Deane  observed,  "  I  once  prevented  their  depreda- 
tions in  my  garden,  by  manuring  the  soil  with  sea-mud, 
newly  taken  from  the  flats.  The  plants  generally  escaped, 
though  every  one  was  cut  ofl"  in  a  spot  of  ground  that  lies 
contiguous.  From  the  success  of  this  experiment,  I  con- 
clude that  salt  is  very  ofTensive  or  pernicious  to  them.  Lime 
and  ashes,  in  some  measure,  prevent  their  doing  mischief; 
but  sea-water,  salt,  or  brine,  would  be  more  effectual  anti- 
dotes. The  most  effectual,  and  not  a  laborious  remedy, 
even  in  field-culture,  is  to  go  round  every  morning,  and  open 
the  earth  at  the  foot  of  the  plant,  and  you  will  never  fail  to 
find  the  worm  at  the  root  within  four  inches.  Kill  him,  and 
you  will  save  not  only  the  other  plants  of  your  field,  but, 
probably,  many  thousands  in  future  years." 

There  is  some  danger,  in  making  use  of  salt,  brine,  or 
sea-water,  of  injuring  the  plants  in  attempting  to  destroy 
insects  ;  and  we  should,  therefore,  generally  prefer  decoc- 
tions of  elder,  walnut  leaves,  or  tobacco.  Mr.  Preston,  of 
Stockport,  Pennsylvania,  preserved  his  cabbage-plants  from 
cut-worms  by  wrapping  a  hickory-leaf  round  the  stem,  be- 
tween the .  roots  and  leaves.  —  JYew  England  Farmer, 
Vol.  III.  p.  369.  The  Hon.  Mr.  Fiske,  of  Worcester, 
Massachusetts,  in  speaking  of  this  insect,  says,  "To  search 
out  the  spoiler,  and  kill  him,  is  the  very  best  course  ; 
but  as  his  existence  is  not  known  except  by  his  ravages,  I 
make  a  fortress  for  my  plants  with  paper,  winding  it  conical- 
ly  and  firmly  above  the  root,  and  securing  it  by  a  low  em- 
bankment of  earth." — JYe'io  England  Farmer,  Vol.  IV, 
p.  362. 

Lice  on  apple-trees.     There  is  a  species  of  insect  infesting 


312  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

apple-trees  which  may  be  styled  tlie  bark  louse,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  plant  louse,  or  aphis.  It  is,  in  form,  like 
half  a  kernel  of  rye,  but  much  smaller,  with  the  flat  side 
sticking  to  the  bark  of  the  tree.  Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  of  Alba- 
ny, gives  the  following  statement  of  his  mode  of  destroying 
them  :  "In  June  last,  I  observed  directions  in  '  The  New 
England  Farmer,'  for  destroying  the  parasitic  enemy  ^  and, 
that  being  the  particular  time  to  make  the  application,  I  im- 
mediately set  about  it.  For  this  purpose,  I  took  eight  parts 
of  water  and  two  of  soft  soap,  and  mixed  with  these  lime 
enough  to  make  a  thick  whitewash.  With  a  whitewash  and 
paint  brush  I  put  this  upon  the  trunks  and  limbs  of  trees,  as 
high  as  was  practicable,  filling  the  cracks  in  the  bark,  and 
covering  the  whole  surface.  The  effect  has  been,  not  only 
to  destroy  most  of  the  lice,  but  to  give  the  trees  an  improved 
and  vigorous  appearance.  The  outer  bark,  which,  from  a 
stinted  growth,  had  become  rough  and  hard,  has,  in  a  meas- 
ure, fallen  off  in  flakes,  and  disclosed  a  soft,  smooth  bark, 
the  sure  indication  of  health." 

Jipple-tree  Borer.  (Saperda  bivitata.)  The  scientific  de- 
scription of  this  very  pernicious  insect  is  thus  given  by  Pro- 
fessor Say,  of  Philadelphia:  "Hoary  ;  above,  light-brown, 
with  two  broad  white  fillets.  Inhabits  the  United  States. 
Body,  white  ;  eyes,  fuscous  ;  a  small  spot  on  the  vertex,  ana 
another  behind  each  eye,  light-brown  ;  anlenntB,  moderate, 
slightly  tinged  with  bluish  ;  thorax,  light-brown,  with  two 
broad,  white  lines,  approaching  before  ;  elytra,  light-brown, 
irregularly  punctured  ;  a  broad,  white,  longitudinal  line  on 
each,  nearer  to  the  suture  than  to  the  outer  edge.  Length, 
from  one-half  to  seven-tenths  of  an  inch.  A  very  pretty  in- 
sect. In  the  larvae  state,  it  is  very  injurious  to  the  apple- 
tree,  boring  into  the  wood." — Journal  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  Phil.,  Vol.  III.  p.  409. 

Professor  Say,  in  a  letter  to  Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  says,  "  You 
state  that  it  leaves  the  pupa,  and  becomes  perfect,  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  April,  and  that  the  eggs  are  deposited  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  These  two  circumstances  ascertain- 
ed, I  would  recommend  the  application,  early  in  May,  or 
the  latter  part  of  April,  of  common  bricklayer's  mortar, 
around  the  base  of  the  tree,  so  as  to  cover  completely  the 
part,  and  its  immediate  vicinity,  where  the  deposit  is  made. 
This  preventive  was  successfully  employed  by  Mr.  Shotwell 
against  the  attacks  of  the  peach-tree  insect,  (see  '  Ameri- 
can Farmer,'  Vol.  VI.  p.   14,)  and  I  see  no  reason  why  it 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  313 

should  not  be  equally  efficacious  in  the  preservation  of  the 
apple-tree."  —  Memoirs  of  the  JVcw  York  Board  of  Agri- 
culture, Vol.  III.  p.  479. 

The  "  Massacfrusetts  Agricultural  Repository,"  (Vol.  V. 
p.  360,)  contains  a  paper  on  this  insect,  by  John  Prince, 
Esq.,  by  which  it  appears,  that  worms  of  this  kind  are  got 
rid  of  by  "digging  round  the  tree,  and  clearing  away  the 
earth  to  the  roots,  and  then,  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife,  a 
chisel,  or  a  gouge,  and  a  small  wire-  to  probe,  if  they  are 
deep  in  the  tree,  they  may  easily  be  destroyed."  After  tak- 
ing out  the  worms,  the  wounds  should  be  covered  over  with 
grafting-clay  and  a  large  proportion  of  dry  wood  ashes 
mixed,  and  the  earth  then  returned  to  the  tree.  The  process 
for  cleansing  the  trees  from  borers  should  be  performed  in  the 
spring,  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  or  at  least 
before  the  month  of  June,  as  the  perfect  insect  escapes  be- 
fore that  time. 

Slug-worm,  or  JVaked  Snail.  These  reptiles  appear  on 
the  leaves  of  fruit-trees  in  the  month  of  July.  Professor 
Peck  has  ascertained  that  they  are  the  progeny  of  a  small 
black  fly,  which  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  leaf  in  the  months 
of  May  and  June.  They  may  be  destroyed  by  means  of 
lime,  sprinkled  over  the  leaves  in  the  form  of  powder.  For 
this  purpose,  a  wooden  box,  of  convenient  size,  having  its 
bottom  perforated  with  numerous  small  holes,  is  to  be  filled 
with  lime.  This  being  mounted  on  a  pole  and  shaken  over 
the  tree,  distributes  the  lime  among  the  leaves,  and  the  slugs 
are  immediately  destroyed.  The  labor  is  very  trivial  ;  a 
man  may  cover  a  large  tree  in  three  or  four  minutes  ;  and 
the  desired  effect  is  certain.  Fine  earth  shaken  tlirough  a 
basket  or  perforated  box  will  answer  as  well. 

"  Another  remedy,  it  is  said,  will  prove  equally  effectual. 
If  is  a  strong  infusion  of  tar,  made  by  pouring  water  on  tar, 
and  suffering  it  to  stand  two  or  three  days,  when  it  becomes 
strongly  impregnated.  This,  if  sprinkled  over  the  leaves  by 
means  of  an  engine,  will  kill  these  vermin  instantaneously. 
A  strong  decoction  of  tobacco  will  probaUly  produce  the  de- 
sired effect,  and  tanner's  bark  put  round  the  tree,  it  is  said, 
will  have  a  salutary  tendency  as  a  preventive." —  Thacliei-'s 
Orchardist. 

Forsyth  recommends  watering  the  ground  where  these  in- 
sects are  with  soap-suds  and  urine,  mixed  with  tobacco- 
water.  Ducks  admitted  into  a  garden  will  destroy  all  within 
their  reach. 

27 


314    THE  COMPLETE  FARMER  AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST. 

TTire-icorm,  or  Red-u-orm.  This  insect  is  slender,  and 
usually  about  an  inch  long,  with  a  hard  coat,  and  a  pointed 
head.  INIr.  William  Moody,  of  Saco,  (Maine.)  in  a  commu- 
nication to  Hon.  Josiah  Quincy,  published  in  "  The  Massa- 
chusetts Agricultural  Repository,"  (Vol.  IV.  p.  353,)  ob- 
serves, "  1  am  persuaded,  from  experience,  that  sea-sand, 
put  under  corn  or  potatoes  with  manure,  or  spread  on  the 
land,  will  go  far,  if  not  wholly,  to  the  total  destruction  of 
these  destructive  worms,  on  which  nothing  else  seems  to 
have  any  effect.  It  has  a  beneficial  effect  spread  on  land 
before  ploughing,  or  even  after  land  is  planted  with  corn  or 
potatoes,  not  only  to  destroy  the  wire-worm  and  other  in- 
sects, but  to  increase  the  crop.  With  ray  neighbours,  a 
load  of  sea-sand  is  considered  as  preferable  to  a  load  of  the 
best  manure,  to  mix  in  with  their  common  barn  manure,  or 
to  spread  on  their  gardens  and  low  flat  land." 

Probably  sea-mud  or  sea-water  would  produce  good  ef- 
fects as  preservatives  against  this  and  other  insects. 

Soaking  seed  corn  in  a  solution  of  copperas  in  water,  has 
been  found  effectual  against  this  insect.  See  page  30  of  this 
work. 

The  Striped  Bug,  or  Yellow  Fly.  This  is  a  small  insect 
of  the  coleoptcra  order,  or  such  as  have  crustaceous  elytra,  or 
wing  cases,  like  the  beetle.  The  elytra  of  this  bug  are 
striped  with  yellow  and  black.  They  prey  on  the  young 
plants  of  cucumbers,  melons,  squashes,  and  others  of  the 
cucurbitacece  species.  "  These  insects  may  be  considerably 
thinned  by  killing  them  in  a  dewy  morning,  when  they  have 
not  the  free  use  of  their  wings,  and  cannot  well  escape.  But 
nothing  that  I  have  tried  has  proved  so  effectual  as  sifting  or 
sprinkling  powdered  soot  upon  the  plants  when  the  morning 
dew  remains  on  them.  This  forms  a  bitter  covering  for  the 
plants,  which  the  bugs  cannot  endure  the  taste  of"  — 
Dcane.  "  We  would  recommend  sprinkling  the  plants  with 
a  little  sulphur  or  Scotch  snuff."  —  Farmer^s  Assistant. 
But  the  surest  defence  against  these  insects  is,  inclosing  the 
plants  with  a  frame,  and  a  muslin  or  gauze  covering. 

For  able  and  scientific  descriptions  of  most  of  the  insects 
which  infest  our  fields  and  gardens,  we  would  refer  to  a 
"  jDifcoiirse  delivered  before  the  Massachusetts  Horticul- 
tural Society,  by  Thaddeus  W.  Harris,"  published  in 
"The  Xew'Engiand  Farmer,"  Vol.  XI.  p.  204,  and  fol- 
lowing pages. 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


It  was  remarked  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  that  the  introduction  of  new 
agricultural  implements  into  a  district  is  often  a  matter  of  the  greatest 
difficulty,  owing  to  tiie  ignorance,  the  prejudice,  and  obstinac}'  of  farm 
servants  and  laborers.  Many  farmers,  therefore,  very  absurdly  retain 
their  old  implements,  though  convinced  of  their  inferiority,  rather  than 
sour  the  tempers  of  their  laborers  by  attempting  to  introduce  new  ones ; 
in  many  cases  however  they  have  succeeded  by  attention  and  persever- 
ance, and  by  rewarding  their  laborers  many  new  and  valuable  imple- 
ments have  been  brought  into  general  use. 

The  farmers  of  JNew  England  are  too  enlightened,  and  have  too  much 
regard  for  their  own  best  interest,  to  be  under  the  dominion  of  such  prof- 
itless prejudices.  Accordingly,  we  find  not  only  a  very  increasing  de- 
mand for  new  and  improved  agricultural  machines,  tools,  «&c.,  but  that 
our  practical  farmers  see  that  it  for  their  interest  to  procure  the  best. 

The  Agricultural  Warehouse  and  Seed  Store,  in  Boston,  51  and  52 
North  Market  Street,  Jos.  Breck  &  Co.  proprietors,  has  become  so  exten- 
sive and  of  so  much  importance  to  the  community,  as  to  induce  the  pro- 
prietors to  continue  and  extend  it  in  all  its  various  branches  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  the  practical  and  scientific  farmer,  by  the  introduction 
of  new  and  useful  implements  of  husbandry,  and  to  furnish  the  best 
tools  for  his  business. 

An  establishment  of  this  kind  not  only  answers  the  above  purpose, 
but  serves  as  a  depository  in  which  the  inventive  artisan  may  place  his 
articles  for  sale.  Tlie  proprietors  do  not  hesitate  to  say,  that  among  the 
variety  of  articles  on  hand  at  this  establishment,  many  are  far  superior 
in  tiieir  form  and  construction,  and  far  better  adapted  to  the  purpose  for 
which  they  are  intended,  than  any  others  which  have  been  in  use  in  this 
country. 


316 


THE    COMPLETE   FARMER 


Threshing  Machines.  Pope's  improved  thfeshing  machine  was  in- 
vented by  the  late  Joseph  Pope,  Esq.,  of  Hallowell,  Maine,  and  has 
been  in  successful  operation  in  different  parts  of  the  country  for  many 
years,  and  is  found  to  be  the  best  operating  machine  for  all  kinds  of 
grain  that  has  been  in  use  ;  it  is  vi^ell  adapted  for  getting  out  rice. 

Hale's  Threshing  Machine.  Hale's  newly  invented  rice  and  grain 
threshing  machines  are  found  on  trial  to  be  the  most  thorough  and 
effective  implements  we  have  had  in  operation  for  the  purpose  intended  ; 
it  is  a  very  simple  operating  machine,  and  powerful  and  quick  in  its 
motion  ;  does  the  work  well,  separates  and  cleans  the  grain  at  the  same 
time.  This  machine  must  be  to  the  rice  planter  an  indispensable  imple- 
ment ;  it  requires  but  one  man  and  a  horse  to  work  it. 


Straie  Cutters.  The  straw  cutter  is  a  machine  well  worth  the  atten- 
tion of  every  farmer,  and  should  be  iii  common  use  with  every  person 
feeding  stock  ;  and  from  the  gieat  improvement  and  simplicity  of  ihe 
machines  now  in  use,  the  work  is  done  with  great  expedition  and  facility. 
It  is  a  subject  of  great  regret  to  every  friend  of  the  agricultural  interest, 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  317 

that  these  machines  are  not  in  more  general  use.  Every  fanner  who  is 
disposed  to  use  fodder  to  the  best  possible  advantage,  and  preserve  his 
animals  in  the  best  health,  in  all  cases  cuts  his  fodder.  For  farther  ex- 
planation of  the  profits  and  advantages  arising  from  cutting  fodder  the 
following  statement  is  given  :  ' 

Mr.  Benjamin  Hale's  account  of  the  savings  made  by  the  use  of  Straw 
Cutters,  employed  to  cut  Hay  and  Straw  as  Fodder  for  Horses. 

Mr  Hale  is  proprietor  of  a  hne  of  stages  running  between  Newbury- 
port  and  Boston.     He  says. 
The  whole    amount  of  hay   purchased  from 

Apiil  1    to  Oct.  1,  1816  (six  months),  and  Tons.    cwt.     qrs.    lis. 

used  at  the  stage  stable,  was  32         4         0         10 

At   twenty-five  dollars   per  ton,  (the  lowest 

price  at  which  hay  was  purchased  in  1816,)  $800  00 

From  Oct.  I,  1816,  to  April  1,   1817,  whole 

amount  of  hay   and    straw   purchased  for, 

and    consumed    by    the   same    nu'mber    of 


horses. 

,  viz. 

T. 

cwt. 

qrs. 

lbs. 

Cost. 

Straw 

16 

13 

3 

10 

$160  23 

Hay 

13 

14 

1 

00 

350  00 

$510  23 
Deduct  on  hand  April  I,  1817,  by  estimation, 
four  tons  more  than  there  was  Oct.  1,  1816, 
at  twenty-five  dollars  per  ton,  100  *410  83 

Saving  by  the  use  of  the  straw  cutter,  four 
months  of  the  last  six  months,  or  the  dif- 
ference in  expense  in  feeding  with  cut 
fodder,  and  that  which  is  uncut,  $389  77 

Whole  amount  of  hay  used  for  the  horses  of 

the  Salem  stage,  twenty- five   in  number,  T.      act.     qrs.     lbs 

from  April  1  to  Oct.  1,  1816,  viz. .  22         0         0  0 

At  thirty  dollars  per  ton,  (the  lowest  price  in 

Salem,)  ^ggQ  qq 

Whole  amount  consumed  by  the  same  num- 
ber of  horses,  from  Oct.  1,  1816,  to  April  1. 
1817, 

T.      net.     qrs.      lbs.  Cost. 

Straw       15       13        0  0  $187  80 

Hay  2       15        0  0  81  00 


Saving  in  using  chopped  fodder  five  months,  $391  20 
Total  saving  in  using  the  straw  cutter  nine 

months,  viz. :  at  Newburyport,  four  months,  $389  77 

At  Salem,  five  months,  391  gg 


Total,  $780  97 

The  members  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricul- 
tural Society,  to  whom  the  above  account  was  communicated  by  Mr. 
Hale,  were  informed  by  that  gentleman,  that  he  used  no  more  grain 

27* 


318 


THE    COMPLETE   FARMER 


from  Oct.  1816,  to  April,  1817,  than  was  used  from  April,  1816,  to  Oct 
ldl6. 

Remarlis.  —  There  is  not  only  much  saving  and  gain  in  cutting  fodder 
when  hay  is  low,  but  the  animal  is, kept  in  better  health,  more  particu- 
larly old  horses,  and  such  as  may  have  been  injured  in  their  wind. 

It  is  a  fact  that  horses  will  live  and  continue  serviceable  much  longer 
when  fed  on  cut  fodder.  The  machine  invented  and  manufactured  by 
Willis,  known  as  "  Willis's  improved  Slraic  and  Hay  Cutter"  is  the 
most  durable  and  best  operating  machine  that  has  come  to  our  knowl- 
edge ;  and  what  is  worthy  of  notice,  ihey  require  but  one  person  to 
operate  them,  which  is  not  the  case  with  many  other  machines;  in  this 
there  is  a  great  saving  in  cutting  feed,  and  likewise  the  fodder  may  be 
cut  of  any  length  required  ;  the  knives  beiiig  placed  in  front  of  the 
machine,  can  be  at  all  times  examined  and  kept  in  good  order.  The 
feedmg  rollers  are  so  constructed,  that  while  the  machine  is  in  the  act 
of  cutting,  the  rollers  cease  to  feed,  which  renders  the  cutting  operation 
very  easy. 

Eastman  s  Straw  Cutter,  with  improved  side  gearing  and  cylindrical 
knives.  This  machine  is  well  calculated  for  large  and  extensive  estab- 
lishments.    Price,  fifty  to  sixty  dollars. 

IVillis's  Vertical  Straw  and  Hay  Cutter.  It  is  well  constructed,  made 
of  the  best  materials  and  of  the  best  workmanship.  Fed  and  worked  by 
one  man  ;  works  free  and  easy,  and  not  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  It  will 
cut  from  thiity-five  to  forty  bushels  per  hour.  Price  thirty-five  dollars. 
For  the  cost  this  is  the  best  machine  in  use. 

This  is  to  certify,  that  I  have  used  Willis's  improved  straw  cutter  the 
past  season,  and  consider  it  the  best  machine  for  the  purpose  now  in 
use.  NATHAN  ADAMS. 

The  Common  Dutch  Hand  Cutting  MaMne,  is  one  of  those  implements 
in  common  use,  and  known  to  every  practical  farmer  ;  and  is  considered 
as  good  a  machine  for  a  small  establishment  as  ^any  in  use.  Will  cut 
from  ten  to  twenty  bushels  per  hour. 

Safford's  Improved  and  Common  Straw  Cutter,  with  side  gearing  ;  well 
approved,  and  is  in  very  general  use. 

Green's  Patent  Straic  Cutter.  The  most  approved  machine  now  in 
use  for  cutting  fodder  :  very  simple  in  its  construction,  and  in  no  way 
liable  to  get  out  of  order;  does  the  work  with  great  ease  and  despatch. 


Root  Steamer.  The  above  cut  represents  a  root  steamer,  described  ii 
the  Farmer's  Magazine,  (a  work  printed  in  Scotland.)  Vol.  XVIII.  page 
74,  and  alluded  to  in  page  51  of  the  present  work.  It  consists  of  a  boiler, 
and  wooden  chest  or  box  placed  over  it  or  near  it.  The  box  may  be  of 
any  size,  and  so  placed,  as  to  be  supplied  and  emptied  by  wheel  and  hand 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST.  319 

barrows  in  the  easiest  manner,  either  by  the  end  or  top,  or  both,  being 
made  to  open.  "  If  the  box  is  made  eight  feet  by  five,  and  three  deep, 
it  will  hold  as  many  potatoes  as  will  feed  fifty  cowa  for  twenty-four  hours, 
and  these  may  be  steamed  in  an  hour." 


Ploughs.  This  implement,  one  of%he  oldest  and  most  useful  employed 
on  a  farm,  has  undergone  of  late  years  a  wonderful  change  in  all  its 
most  essential  parts,  and  has  been  greatly  improved.  The  cast  iron 
plough  is  now  most  generally  used  among  the  best  farmers,  and  consid- 
ered decidedly  the  best.  Among  the  different  ploughs  now  made  of  cast 
iron,  Howard's  stands  unrivalled.  They  have  been  used  at  the  different 
catlle  shows  and  ploughing  matches,  and  have  in  all  cases  been  approved 
by  them.  At  the  Brighton  cattle  show  at  the  exhibition  in  October, 
1832,  they  received  the  premium  of  ten  dollars,  awarded  as  being  the 
best  plough  presented. 

[Extract  from  the  Report  of  the  Committee.] 

"  The  ploughs  were  all  of  cast  iron,  and  by  six  of  the  most  approved 
manufacturers.  The  one  by  Mr.  Charles  Howard,  of  Hingham,  was  a 
superior  implement,  considerable  improvements  having  recently  been 
made  by  him,  in  making  the  mould-board  longer  than  usual,  and  swel- 
ling the  breast  of  the  share,  so  as  to  make  every  part  bear  equally  ;  by 
which  means  the  plough  runs  more  true  and  steady,  is  always  free  from 
carrying  forward  any  earth,  and  wears  perfectly  bright ;  and  being  made 
on  mathematical  principles,  he  informed  the  committee  he  could  make 
the  different  sizes  always  the  same."  JOHN  PRINCE, 

EBENEZER  HEATH, 
JOHN  BAKER,  3d. 

"  The  duty  of  awarding  a  premium  '  to  the  plough  which  shall  be 
adjudged  best  of  all  those  used  at  the  ploughing  match,-'  devolved  on 
the  two  committees ,  and  they  agreed  unanimously  to  award  it  to  Mr. 
Charles  Howard,  of  Hingham,  for  his  new  and  improved  plough ;  ten 
dollars."  GORHAM  PARSONS, 

Chairman  of  Single  Teams. 
JOHN  PRINCE, 

Chairman  of  Double  Teams. 

There  has  been  no  plough  presented  since  1832  which  has  been  con- 
sidered better  than  the  Howard  plough;  therefore  the  committee  have 
not  awarded  a  premium  since  that  year  ;  they  still  offer  the  premium  of 
ten  dollars  for  the  best  plough. 

Side  hill  Plough.  This  plough,  for  which  a  premium  was  given  at 
Brighton,  is  found  to  be  a  very  great  improvement  on  the  ploughs  now 
in  use.  for  working  on  side-hills.  The  mould-board  is  so  constructed  as 
to  shift  on  each  side,  as  may  be  required,  by  turning  on  the  under  side 
of  the  plough  as  the  team  turns  at  each  end  of  the  furrow. 


320 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


Howard's  Improted  Double  Mould-Board  Plough.  This  plough  is 
well  calculated  tor  furrowing  out  land,  splitting  hills,  ploughing  between 
corn,  potato,  and  vegetable  cultivation,  to  great  advantage.  A  great 
labor-saving  machine  ;  saves  nearly  all  the  hoeing  of  corn  or  potatoes. 

Bigdoic's  Plough.  This  plough  is  made  of  wrought  iron,  and  is  in 
general  use,  and  very  much  approved, being  very  strong  and  quite  light; 
does  the  work  well  with  little  labor. 

Morse's  Plough.     Similar  to  Bigelow's,  but  a  better  made  article. 

Rice's  common  Wood  Plough.     Of  all  sizes. 

Shovel  Plough,  and  Plough  Scrapers.  Of  all  sizes,  made  to  order  at 
the  shortest  notice. 

Quaker  Hand  Plough.  For  gardens,  a  very  useful  implement,  and 
used  to  great  advantage  in  garden  cultivation.     Steel  pointed. 


Chandler's  Improved  Double  Harrow.  This  harrow  is  so  constructed 
ae  to  be  in  two  parts,  and  joined  together  by  hinges  on  two  straight  cen- 
tre pins,  so  that  one  part  can  be  raised  and  swung  over  on  the  other  half 
as  occasion  requires.  Its  advantage  over  the  common  harrow  is,  that  it 
is  less  liable  to  be  stopped,  as  one  side  may  be  elevated  or  turned  to  a 
perpendicular  position,  while  the  other  side  proceeds  horizontally  ;  it 
may  thus  be  drawn  nearer  to  rocks,  trees,  &c.  It  will  likewise  better 
adapt  itself  to  ridges,  hollows,  and  uneven  land. 

Tree  and  Bush  Pullers.  The  tree  and  bush  puller  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  effective  implements  in  use  ;  it  is  employed  in  clearing  land 
of  under  brush,  small  trees,  barberry  and  other  bushes.     It  is  of  iron,  of 


ANU   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  321 

any  size  or  dimensions  required,  sometliing  in  the  form  of  a  rake  or  claw, 
with  the  teeth  much  bent.  The  ground  is  loosened  around  the  tree  or 
bush  which  is  to  be  removed.  The  teeth  or  claws  are  entered  on  one 
side,  a  horse  or  oxen  are  attached  by  a  chain  to  the  claw  and  drawn  on 
the  opposite  side.  One  man  and  horse  or  one  yoke  of  oxen  will  do  more 
work  with  this  implement  than  five  men  can  do  without  it,  in  digging 
and  clearins  land. 


Cultivators.  Howard  and  Seaver's  patent  fixed  and  expanding  culti- 
vators, of  all  sizes.  The  cultivator  is  an  implement  that  is  coming  into 
very  general  use  in  all  parts  of  tlie  country,  and  serves  in  a  great  meas- 
ure in  lieu  of  hoeing.  The  teeth  are  so  constructed  as  to  raise  the 
ground,  and  leaves  it  very  light  and  free  for  cultivation,  and  at  the  same 
time  destroys  the  weeds  ;  and  is  well  adapted  to  southern  and  western 
cultivation. 

These  cultivators  are  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  ground,  for  running 
through  rows  of  corn,  potatoes,  and  vegetables  of  all  kinds  ;  and  used 
in  the  cultivation  of  hops,  instead  of  the  plough  and  hoe,  and  are  found 
far  superior  to  either  It  is  likewise  well  adapted  to  harrow  in  grain  and 
grass  seed  ;  and,  for  the  many  uses  to  which  this  implement  may  be  ap- 
plied, it  piust  be  considered  one  of  the  most  valuable  tools  that  is  used 
on  a  farm,  and  is  coming  into  very  general  use. 

This  certifies,  that  I  have  used  Seaver's  cultivator,  and  find  it  a  much 
better  article  to  work  among  corn  and  potatoes,  than  any  machine  that 
I  have  ever  tried  ;  it  clears  the  weeds  between  the  rows  much  more 
efieclually  than  either  a  plough  or  harrow,  and  saves  a  great  deal  of 
labor.  BENJ.  WHEELER. 

Framingham,  1834. 

Broad-Cnst  Machine.  Bennet's  broad-cast  machine.  This  machine, 
which  is  designed  for  sowing  broad-cast  is  found,  when  used  on  smooth 
and  even  ground,  to  answer  a  good  purpose,  sows  very  regular  and  even, 
and  is  used  with  great  despatch. 

Tree  Brushes.  Pickering's  improved  wire  brushes  are  found  to  be  the 
most  effective  implements  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  trees  and  destroy- 
ing caterpillars,  of  any  thing  that  has  ever  been  used.  This  brush,  which 
is  made  in  a  spiral  or  taper  form,  and  about  eight  inches  long,  is  fixed 
on  the  end  of  a  pole,  the  small  part  of  the  brush  is  entered  into  the 
webs,  and  a  moderate  twist  of  two  or  three  turns  takes  the  web  and  all 
connected  with  it  clear  from  the  tree.     It  should  be  used  very  early  in 


322 


THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 


the  morning  and  late  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  insects  are  in  their 
neets. 


Cheese  Presses.  Quaker's  improved  self-governing  cheese  press.  The 
press  is  so  constructed  as  to  govern  and  regulate  itself,  jn  pressing  a 
cheese  of  any  size,  wilhnut  any  weights. 

Leavelt's  Improved  Cheese  Press;  which  is  so  constructed,  that  seven 
or  fourteen  pounds'  weight  will  press  any  common  sized  cheese. 

Cheese  Hoops,  different  sizes. 

Cheese  Cloths. 

Curd  Mills,  for  cutting  cheese  curds,  which  facilitates  the  labor  of  the 
dairy. 

Lactometers.  This  invention  is  found  to  be  of  great  utility  and  ad- 
vantage in  testing  the  quality  of  cream  given  by  each  cow.  It  consists 
of  a  small  mahogany  frame  which  contains  four  or  six  glass  tubes  of 
ten  inches  in  length  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  tubes  are  di- 
vided into  tenths,  and  numbered  from  one  to  ten,  which  show  the  quan- 
tity of  cream  given  by  each  cow.  This  little  article  is  found  very  use- 
ful, and  is  much  used  in  large  dairies. 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST. 


323 


Gaull's  Patent  Churn,  which  has  been  in  use  for  several  years,  is  the 
most  approved  and  convenient  churn  now  in  use.  The  particular  ad- 
vantage is  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  worked.  From  its  quick 
and  powerful  motion  it  will  produce  the  greatest  quantity  of  butter  from 
the  same  quantity  of  cream  ;  is  easy  to  clean,  and  no  way  liable  to  get 
out  of  order. 

Mr.  Fessenden,  Editor  of  the  JVew  England  Farmer. 

Sir, —  In  answer  to  the  inquiry  respecting  the  Gault's  churn,  which 
I  purchased  at  the  agricultural  warehouse,  I  give  it  as  my  decided  opin- 
ion, that  they  are  the  best  churns  I  have  ever  seen  in  use.  They  are 
very  convenient  to  keep  clean,  bring  the  butter  very  easy,  and  require 
not  more  than  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  to  do  a  churning. 

Respectfully  yours,  B.  REYNOLDS. 

Sharon,  June  15,  1829. 

Stone  Churn.     A  small  article,  well  calculated  for  small  families. 


Davis's  Improved  Patent  Dirt  Scraper.  This  road  or  dirt  scraper,  in- 
vented by  Shadrock  Davis,  is  used  to  great  advantage  in  removing  dirt 
or  gravel,  more  particularly  in  stony  lands,  from  the  peculiar  construe- 


324  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

tion  of  the  points,  which  are  similar  to  those  of  a  plough  point.  They 
enter  the  ground  very  free  and  easy,  fill  and  discharge  themselves,  and 
are  easily  managed  by  one  horse  or  a  yoke  of  oxen.  Ploughing  is  un- 
necessary where  these  shovels  are  used. 

We  liie  undersigned  hereby  certify,  that  we  have  used  Davis's  patent 
plough-pointed  road  and  dirt  scraper,  and  we  consider  it  a  great  improve- 
ment on  the  common  road  scraper,  and  can  with  confidence  recommend 
it  to  the  public,  as  being  superior  to  any  implement  of  the  kind  we  have 
ever  used,*  particularly  in  sandy  and  stony  land,  being  so  constructed  as 
to  load  itself  without  the  use  of  ploughing,  which  is  common  in  using 
the  old-fashioned  dirt  scraper.  We  consider  it  one  of  the  greatest  laoor- 
saving  implements  to  the  road-maker  that  can  be  used,  and  as  such  we 
fully  recommend  it  to  the  public. 

ABM.  WASHBURN.  Bridgewater. 
HENRY  S.  PACKARD,  .\orth  Dartmouth. 
BRADFORD  HOWLAND,  South  Dartmouth. 

Pruning  Shears.  This  article,  which  was  formerly  made  by  ^V'ake- 
field,  of  Gardener,  has  since  been  very  much  improved,  and  is  now  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  best  and  most  approved  implements^in  use,  and 
has  taken  the  place  of  the  pruning  knife  ;  and  for  grape  vines  and 
small  trees  is  considered  much  the  best;  as  upon  an  easy  drawing  stroke 
it  cuts  very  smooth  and  fair  without  injury  to  the  bark  or  wood. 

Scythes.  The  agricultural  concave  scythes,  which  are  found,  fiom 
the  peculiar  form  and  shape  in  which  they  are  made,  to  cut  upon  the 
principle  of  a  drawing  stroke,  and  are  very  easily  ground  and  kept  in 
good  order,  and  are  considered  the  best  scythes  that  are  manufactured. 
From  the  peculiar  construction  of  these  scythes  the  edge  is  always  left 
true  in  the  middle  of  the  scythe. 

Scythe  Rifles.  Austin's  and  Derby's  rifles  are  considered  the  best  arti- 
cles made  for  the  purpose.  Tliey  are  about  the  size  of  the  common  snnd 
rifle,  are  cased  with  fine  emery,  and  give  a  very  sharp  and  good  eds'e. 
They  are  of  very  general  use,  and  good  substitutes  for  the  scythe  stone. 

Scyllie  Snathe.  This  article,  though  in  very  common  use,  has  been 
altered  and  improved  to  great  advantage  within  a  few  years  past.  The 
snathes  manufiictured  by  V'ickery  Baker  for  the  proprietors  of  the  ai^ri- 
cultural  warehouse  are  found  to  be  the  most  approved  and  best  calcu- 
lated to  work  free  and  easy.  The  regular  quick  turn  at  the  heel,  and 
the  strong  and  substantial  iron  rings  winch  secure  the  scythe  and  nibs, 
are  considered  a  great  improvement  in  those  snatlies. 

Willis  s  Patent  Brass  Syringe.  This  syringe  is  intended  for  watering 
all  kinds  of  green  house  and  out-door  plants,  and  for  preserving  grape 
vines  from  mildew,  and  has  been  used  with  a  solution  prepared  for  that 
purpose,  with  great  success.     See  the  following  recipe  : 

Take  a  pint  and  a  half  of  sulphur,  and  a  lump  of  the  best  unslacked 
lime  ;  put  these  in  a  vessel  of  about  seven  gallons'  measurement ;  let 
the  sulphur  be  thrown  in  first,  and  the  lime  over  it ;  then  pour  in  a  pail 
of  boiling  water,  stir  it  well,  and  let  it  stand  half  an  hour  ;  then  fill  the 
vessel  with  cold  water,  and  after  stirring  well  again,  allow  tiie  whole  to 
settle  :  after  it  has  'oecome  settled  dip  out  the  clear  liquid  into  a  barrel, 
and  fill  the  barrel  with  cold  water,  and  it  is  then  fit  for  use.  You  next 
proceed  with  a  syringe  holding  about  a  pint  and  a  half,  and  throw  the 
liquid  with  it  on  the  vines  in  every  direction,  so  as  to  completely  cover 
foliage,  fruit,  and  wood  ;  this  should  be  particularly  done  when  the  fruit 
is  just  forming,  and  about  one-third  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  may  be  con- 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  325 

tinued  twice  or  thrice  a  week  for  two  or  three  weeks.     The  whole  pro- 
cess for  one  or  two  hundred  grape  vines  need  not  exceed  half  an  hour. 


Harris's  Improved  Paint  Mill.  This  mill  can  be  used  by  hand,  horse, 
or  any  other  power  that  it  may  be  attached  to,  and  works  to  great  advan- 
tage. From  the  very  plain  and  simple  manner  of  its  construction,  it  is 
easily  taken  to  pieces  and  cleaned,  and  shifted  from  one  place  to 
another,  and  used  with  great  faciUty,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  best 
and  most  useful  mills  in  use. 

CERTIFICATES    FOR   HARRIs's    PAINT    MILL. 

I  the  undersigned  hereby  certify,  that  I  have  used  Harris's  improved 
patent  paint  mill,  purchased  at  the  agricultural  warehouse,  Boston,  and 
consider  it  the  best  and  most  convenient  mill  for  the  purpose  intended 
of  any  I  have  ever  used.     It  is  very  readily  cleaned  and  put  in  order. 

Hingham,  Feb.  '20,  1834.  SETH  B.  CUSHING. 

28 


326 


THE    COMPLETE   FARMER 


I  the  undersigned  do  certify,  that  I  have  used  one  of  Harris's  paint 
mills  for  grinding  a  variety  of  paint  for  about  two  3'ears,  and  do  not  hesi- 
tate to  give  it  the  preference  to  every  other  mill  I  have  ever  used. 

Ware,  May  2(j,  1834.  THOMAS  B.  WESTERN. 

I  hereby  certify,  that  I  have  been  in  the  paint  business  for  fifteen  years, 
and  have  used  different  kinds  of  paint  mills,  and  have  not  found  any  so 
good  as  Harris's  patent  mill.  I  have  ground  with  one  of  these  mills 
one  hundred  pounds  of  lead  in  two  hours.  I.  BARTLETT. 

I  have  used  one  of  Harris's  patent  paint  mills  for  grinding  small  col- 
ors for  some  time  past,  and  find  it  the  best  mill  for  the  purpose  in  use. 

Boston,  June  20, 1834.  GEORGE  YENDELL. 


Winnowing  Machines.  Holmes's  improved  winnowing  machine  is  one 
of  the  best  that  is  in  use.  It  is  very  plain  and  simple  in  its  construction, 
and  very  powerful  in  its  operation  ;  is  well  calculated  for  cleaning  all 
kinds  of  grain,  and  may  be  applied  to  many  other  purposes,  such  as 
cleaning  rice,  coffee,  «&:c. 

Elliot's  patent  horizontal  mill  is  for  the  same  purpose.  Though 
smaller  and  more  compact,  is  found  equally'  as  good  ;  is  considered  as  an 
improvement  on  the  common  winnowing  machines  now  in  use.  The 
motion  of  the  flyers  is  horizontal,  and  the  sieves  have  a  forward  and 
backward  motion. 

Grain  Cradles.  This  article,  like  tlie  scythe  snathe,  has  undergone 
a  very  great  alteration  and  is  much  improved.  The  scythe  is  well 
secured,  and  finished  in  a  superior  manner,  and  made  of  the  best  cast 
steel. 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST. 


327 


Revolving  Horse  Rake.  The  revolving  rake,  which  has  been  in  gen- 
eral use  in  most  parts  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  is  found  to  be 
one  of  the  most  useful  and  labor-saving  machines  now  in  use.  One 
man  and  horse,  with  a  boy  to  lead,  will  rake  on  an  average  from  ten  to 
fifteen  acres  per  day  with  ease,  and  do  the  work  well.  They  are  coming 
into  very  general  use  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  will  no  doubt  in  a 
few  years  supersede  the  use  of  the  common  hand  rake. 

Cast  Steel  and  Common  Ajces.  This  very  common  article  among  our 
farmers  is  one  of  the  most  useful  implements  ever  invented.  Under- 
bill's cast  steel  a.xes  have  been  considered  as  the  best,  and  most  ap- 
proved in  form  and  shape,  and  are  warranted  in  every  respect  to  be 
of  the  best  quality.  They  are  finished  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  and 
ground  to  a  fine  smooth  cutting  edge. 

Hatchets,  cleavers,  and  many  other  tools,  made  by  different  woikmen, 
and  finished  in  the  same  manner. 


Hoes.  Great  improvement  has  been  made  in  this  article  of  late.  A 
great  variety  of  hoes  are  now  manufactured,  of  difierent  forms.  Those 
made  by  Morgan  are  considered  the  best  now  in  use  ;  they  are  made  of 
the  best  of  steel,  crooked  neck,  and  socket  handles. 


328 


THE  COMPLETE  FARMER 


The  Prong  or  Potato  Hoe  is  one  of  the  most  useful,  simple,  and  im- 
proved implements  that  is  employed.  It  was  invented  and  used  in  the 
first  instance  for  digging  potatoes ;  it  was  afterwards  found  as  useful  for 
planting  £is  for  digging  them,  and  hkewise  is  used  for  almost  every  pur- 
pose for  which  a  hoe  has  been  used;  and  they  are  emploved  to  the  great- 
est possible  advantage  in  stony  or  rocky  lands,  and  in  planting  new 
land;  they  are  hkewise  used  as  a  garden  hoe,  being  one  of  the  best  im- 
plements a  gardener  can  have  in  use,  or  in  working  between  rows  of 
vegetables,  digging  round  young  trees,  loosening  the  ground,  &c. 

Lord  VernoTis  J\'ew  Tillage  Hoe.  The  utility  of  this  garden  hoe  will 
be  duly  appreciated  upon  trial.  Few  gardeners  or  nursery  men  employed 
in  gardening  wdl  be  without  them  when  once  they  have  been  used, 
They  are  employed  to  great  advantage  in  deep  tillage ;  in  many  cases 
they  are  superior  to  digging  or  forking  the  land. 


Cast  Steel  Shovels  and  Spades.  Ames's  improved  Cast  Steel  back 
Strapped  Shovels  and  Spades  are  very  superior  in  every  respect  to  the 
common  iron  and  steel  shovels.  They  wear  much  longer,  continue 
brighter,  more  sharp,  and  are  used  with  great  ease.  This  article,  though 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  common  implements  in  use,  has  been  much 
improved.  Also  a  great  variety  of  other  kinds  of  spades  and  shovels, 
made  by  different  manufacturers.  Irish  shovels  and  spades  with  long 
handles. 

Bill-Hook.  This  article  is  much  used  in  England  in  pruning  and 
clearing  brush,  and  is  a  good  tool  as  a  substitute  for  the  pruning  saw  and 
chisel,  and  can  be  used  with  more  expedition. 


Garden  and  Field  Rollers.  E.  Phinney,  Esq.,  of  Lexington,  has  made 
great  and  successful  use  of  the  roller  for  grass  land,  and  has  given  a  de- 
scription and  dimensions  of  what  he  considers  the  most  convenient  and 


AND   RURAL  ECONOMIST. 


529 


best  proportion,  viz. :  The  rollers  to  be  six  feet  in  length  and  five  feet  in 
in  diameter,  placed  on  an  iron  axle  of  the  same  length  by  one  inch  and 
a  half  in  diameter;  the  roller  to  be  made  of  oak  or  any  hard  wood  plank, 
each  plank  to  be  about  four  inches  wide  and  two  and  a  half  thick  ;  the 
roller  is  made  in  two  parts,  of  three  feet  each ;  each  end  of  the  axle  is 
secured  in  a  frame  which  is  made  of  joist,  of  a  suitable  size  to  receive 
the  end  of  the  axle  ;  to  this  frame  is  attached  the  shafts  in  which  the 
horse  is,  or  a  tongue  to  which  the  oxen  are  attached,  which  completes 
the  rollers. 

Mr.  Phinney  says,  this  sized  roller  presents  the  following  among  other 
advantages,  viz. :  If  the  ground  is  very  mellow,  the  large  sized  roller 
presses  the  small  stones  more  directly  into  the  ground  and  renders  the 
surface  more  regular  and  even  ;  the  large  roller  also  moves  easier,  and 
the  weight  falling  more  directly  upon  the  small  stones,  they  are,  as  he 
has  before  observed,  better  pressed  into  the  earth,  the  lumps  of  earth 
more  finely  broken,  and  the  surface  left  much  smoother.  For  garden 
rollers  or  gravel  walks  the  stone  or  iron  rollers  are  prepared,  of  different 
sizes. 


Com  Sheller.     A  corn  sheller  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  and  labor- 
saving  implements  that  the  practical  farmer  has  in  use.     Various  ma- 
chines for  this  purpose  have  been  invented.     The   most  improved  and 
28* 


330 


THE  COMPLETE  FARMER 


best  adapted  for  common  use  aje  those  of  Harrison,  with  the  patent  ver- 
tical wheel.  It  can  be  employed  in  all  cases  for  large  or  small-sized  ears. 
It  is  very  simple  in  its  construction  jmd  durable  in  its  operation,  and  no 
way  liable  to  get  out  of  order  ;  one  man  can  work  it  to  good  advanteige, 
though  a  man  to  turn  and  a  boy  to  feed  it  works  it  much  better  than  one 
alone.  In  this  way  it  will  shell  ten  to  twelve  bushels  per  hour.  They 
are  so  light  and  portable  as  to  be  easily  removed  from  place  to  place, 
and  one  machine  will  serve  for  several  families,  or  even  the  inhabitants 
of  a  small  town. 


WillLs's  and  Hale's  improved  Portalle  Horse  Poicer,  may  be  worked 
by  one  or  more  horses,  mules,  or  oxen.  As  every  farmer  keeps  more  or 
less  of  these  animals,  no  additional  expense  is  required  in  working  these 
powers.  They  are  calculated  to  propel  any  kind  of  machinery  or  agri- 
cultural implements  in  common  use,  such  as  tlireshing  machines,  cider 
mills,  corn  and  cob  mills,  straw  and  hay  cutters,  corn  shellers,  grind- 
stones, winnowing  machines,  &c. ;  they  are  likewise  well  adapted  for 
machine  shops,  in  working  the  circular  or  web  saw,  turning  lathes,  or 
any  machinery  where  power  is  required.  The  alterations  and  improve- 
ments made  in  this  power  render  it  very  simple  in  its  construction  and 
easy  in  its  operation,  and  not  liable  to  get  out  of  order  when  properly 
made.  They  occupy  but  the  small  space  of  nine  feet  by  two,  and  are 
easily  removed  ;  they  are  truly  labor-saving  machines,  and  must  come 
into  general  use  with  farmers  and  mechanics.  They  are  hkewise  well 
adapted  for  the  use  of  plantations,  being  Ccdculated  for  working  saw  or 
roller  gins,  and  other  purposes  to  which  they  may  be  applied  ;  they  are 
so  portable  as  to  be  transported  at  a  moderate  expense,  and  may  be  put 
in  operation  by  any  person  of  common  capacity. 

Bark  or  Plaster  Mills.  The  Troy  bark  and  plaster  mills.  These  mills 
are  cJtered  and  much  improved  from  the  old-fashioned  mill  which  has 
been  in  use  for  many  years. 

Family  Hand  Mills.  Willis's  improved  patent  family  or  plantation 
mill,  calculated  for  grinding  corn,  colFee,  Six:.,  has  a  small  balance  wheel, 
which  regulates  its  operation  and  causes  it  to  work  free  and  easy. 

Glass  Covers  for  Plants.  These  covers  are  used  for  covering  plants, 
—  protecting  them  in  their  growth  and  preventing  mildew. 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST. 


331 


milts  s  Stationary  Horse  Foicer,  and  Corn  Cracker  Mtached.  Corn 
and  Cob  Cracker.  This  mill,  which  is  calculated  for  grinding  cob  and 
corn  together,  is  found  to  make  the  best  provender  and  the  most  eco- 
nomical food  for  flittening  hogs  or  horses.  It  is  so  constructed  as  to  be 
used  with  a  common  grist  mill  or  separate,  as  circumstances  may  require 
and  may  be  worked  by  a  single  horse  or  any  other  power.  From  thirty 
to  forty  bushels  per  hour  have  been  ground  in  those  mills. 


Grindstones  on  Friction  Rollers.  Grindstones  of  different  sizes  hung 
on  friction  rollers  and  moved  with  a  foot  treader,  are  found  to  be  a  great 
improvement  on  the  present  mode  of  hanging  grindstones.     The  ease 


332 


THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 


with  which  they  move  upon  the  rollers  renders  them  very  easy  to  turn 
with  the  foot,  by  which  the  labor  of  one  man  is  saved ;  and  the  person 
in  the  act  of  grinding  can  govern  the  stone  more  to  his  mind  by  having 
the  complete  control  of  liis  work.  Stones  bung  in  this  manner  are 
coming  daily  moie  iu  use.  and  wherever  used  give  universal  satisfac- 
tion.    The  rollers  can  be  attached  to  stones  hung  in  the  common  way. 

Hay  Knives.  These  knives  are  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the  hay  in 
the  mow,  and  are  a  desirable  article  for  that  purpose,  and  almost  indis- 
pensable where  hay  is  stacked  in  the  yard,  and  the  farmer  would  wish 
to  spend  his  hay  to  the  best  advantage. 

Peat  Knires,  for  cutting  peat ;  an  article  which  is  daily  increasing  in 
use  for  fuel,  and  in  many  parts  of  our  country  is  found  in  great  abun- 
dance, and  if  cut  at  a  suitable  season  of  the  year,  is  used  to  good  advan- 
tage. 

Pomace  Kmves.  These  knives  are  almost  indispensable  in  a  cider 
country. 

Ditching  Knives,  far  ditching  Low  Lands. 

Cast  Steel  Edging  and  Trimming  Kiiizes.  These  knives  are  calculated 
for  edging  and  trimming  grass-plats,  borders,  <fcc. ;  are  found  to  be  one 
of  the  most  convenient  tools  a  gardener  can  have  in  use. 

Grass  and  Edgeing  Shears.  These  shears  are  for  the  purpose  of  edg- 
ing banks  and  slopes,  for  trimming  and  keeping  the  banks  in  good  order, 
and  the  oftener  they  are  used  the  more  thrifty  and  thick  the  grasa  will 
grow. 


Hale's  Improved  Rotary  Pump.  This  pump,  which  is  a  great  improve- 
ment upon  the  various  rotary  pumps  now  in  use,  is  very  plain  and  sim- 
ple in  its  construction,  and  no  way  liable  to  get  out  of  order ;  but  works 
with  great  facility,  throws  a  constant  and  regular  stream  by  a  very  sim- 
ple operation  of  a  crank,  and  is  calculated  for  all  kinds  of  domestic  pur- 
poses, as  well  as  for  green-houses,  factories,  &c.     There  are  different 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST. 


333 


sizes  of  these  pumps  manufactured,  which  are  so  constructed  as  to 
answer  as  forcmg  pumps,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  carry  water  to  any  dis- 
tance, and  are  a  good  substitute  for  an  eno-ine 

Zinc  Hollow  Ware  either  for  culinary  °use  or  tiie  dairy,  by  wholesale 
or  retail,  may  be  had  at  tlie  agricultural  warehouse.  The  proprietors  are 
sole  agents  for  vendmg  the  above  wares.  The  prices  of  this  ware  will 
upon  exammation  be  found  not  to  vary  materially  from  that  of  tin  and 
iron,  yet  as  durable  as  iron,  easily  cleansed,  not  subject  to  rust,  giving 
the  article  cooked  or  kept  in  it  no  unpleasant  taste,  and  containing  in 
itselt  no  poison,  like  copper,  brass,  and  lead. 

Zinc  kettles  will  be  found  to  cook  rice,  hominy,  and  all  kinds  of 
sweetmeats,  better  than  any  other  kind  of  metal,  neither  discolorinjr  nor 
varying  the  flavor  of  the  substance  cooked;  and  for  these  purposis,  it 
will  ere  long  be  substituted  for  brass  and  copper,  to  avoid  the  poisonous 
corrosions  of  those  metals.  ^ 

Zinc  pans,  for  the  dairy,  will  be  found  by  the  dairy-woman  an  object 
worthy  of  her  attention,  from  these  considerations :  that  they  will  areatlv 
outlast  any  other  pans,  that  the  same  size  pans  will  produce  oni-sixth 
more  cream  or  butter,  and  of  a  superior  flavor;  they  are  more  easily 
cleansed  and  will  keep  milk  siceet  longer  by  a  number  of  hours.  Zinc 
tubs  and  firkins  will  keep  butter  sweet  several  davs  longer  in  hot 
weather  than  those  of  wood  or  other  kinds  of  metal.  '  This  has  been  a 
subject  of  experiment,  and  the  results  safely  warrant  the  statement 
Hence  families  who  prefer  sweet  butter  to  rancid,  will  do  well  to  avail 
themselves  of  these  tubs,  for  keeping  their  butter  sweet  and  retaining 


Scott,  Keith,  <^  Co.'s  Improved  Cast  Iran  Pump.  This  pump  was  in- 
vented by  Jesse  Reed,  of  Bridgewater,  and  proves  to  be  the  most  simple 
and  best  constructed  pump  that  is  in  use,  being  made  of  cast  iron,  which 


334  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

is  considered  the  best  metal  which  water  can  pass  through ;  is  very 
durable  and  cheap.  It  has  metal  boxes  so  constructed,  that  in  raising 
the  handle  the  lower  box  or  valve  is  opened,  and  the  water  let  off,  which 
prevents  its  freezing.  They  are  so  plain  and  simple  in  their  construc- 
tion, that  they  can  be  put  up  or  taken  down  by  any  common  workman, 
and  no  way  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  They  are  attached  to  wooden 
logs  or  lead  pipes,  and  are  well  calculated  for  all  domestic  purposes. 


Cattle  Chains.  These  chains  have  of  late  been  introduced  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  cattle  to  the  stall,  —  are  found  to  be  the  safest  and 
most  convenient  mode  of  fastening  cows  and  oxen  in  the  stanchion. 
•  They  consist  of  a  chain  which  pasaos  round  the  animal's  neck,  and  by 
a  ring  attached  to  the  stall  plays  freely  up  and  down,  and  leaves  the 
animal  at  liberty  to  lie  down  or  rise  at  pleasure,  and  keeps  him  perfectly 
secure. 


Brooks's  Patent  Silk  Spinning  Machine.  Brooks's  silk  spinning  and 
reeling  machine,  is  found  to  be  a  very  simple  and  easy  operating  ma- 
chine,''and  yet  one  of  the  most  perfect  that  has  been  invented  lor  the 
purpose  of  reeling  and  twisting  silk  from  the  cocoons,  and  manufactur- 
ing it  into  sewing  silk.     By  the  different  arrangements  of  this  machine, 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST. 


335 


it  will  operate  upon  a  single  or  double  thread,  as  may  be  required,  and 
prepare  it  for  twisting  or  weaving.  E.Yperience  has  fully  proved,  that  by 
uniting  the  filaments  of  silk  as  they  are  drawn  from  the  cocoons,  wet  in 
tlieir  natural  glutinous  substance,  before  they  dry,  the  thread  is  more 
firmj  smooth,  and  strong.  The  simplicity  of  the  machine,  and  the  very 
easy  way  in  which  it  is  used,  bring  it  within  the  comprehension  and 
capacity  of  any  person  to  use  it.  Mr.  Brooks  has  received  a  premium 
for  his  invention  from  several  societies,  and  of  late  a  premium  and  medal 
from  the  Scott's  legacy,  in  Philadelphia. 

Lightning  Rods  and  Glass  Blocks.  From  the  repeated  and  almost 
daily  occurrences  which  happen  from  the  effect  of  lightning,  occasioning 
death,  and  destruction  of  much  property,  it  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that 
every  farmer  does  not  have  attached  to  his  dwelling-house  and  barn  a 
lightning  rod,  and  guarded  in  the  best  possible  manner,  which  is  done 
by  passing  the  rod  through  glass  blocks  which  are  constructed  for  the 
purpose. 


Ox  Yokes.  Many  improvements  have  been  made  in  this  article,  and 
even  in  the  bows  and  keys. 

Brass  and  Composition  Balls.  These  balls  are  not  only  ornamental, 
but  are  very  useful  in  preventing  the  animal  from  hooking,  or  being  in 
other  respects  mischievous  and  troublesome.  They  have  been  in  very 
general  use,  and  add  much  to  the  appearance  of  the  animal. 


Pomroy's  Patent  Spring  Staple,  for  securing  horses.  The  improve- 
ment in  this  staple,  is  such,  that  if  the  horse  is  cast,  or  in  any  way  en- 
tangled, he  can  disengage  and  free  himself.  Many  fine  and  valuable 
horses  are  lost  for  the  want  of  this  self-regulating  staple. 

Carriage  Lifter,  or  levers,  for  raising  wagons,  carts,  or  carriages  of 
all  kinds,  or  for  raising  loads,  pressing  goods,  &c.  Being  a  small  handy 
implement,  it  may  be  taken  in  a  carriage,  while  travelling,  and  found 
very  convenient  and  handy  for  the  purpose.  Carriage  winches  and 
wrenches  are  likewise  very  handy  and  convenient  travelling  compan- 
ions, and  should  always  be  at  hand. 

Jlpple  Barer.  The  apple  paring  machine  is  used  to  great  advantage 
in  that  part  of  the  country  where  much  attention  is  given  to  paring  and 
drying  apples  for  market.  This  is  a  small  simple  machine,  which  is 
very  convenient  for  the  use  it  is  designed  for,  and  is  as  much  of  a  time 


336  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

and  labor-saving  machine  as  tliose  which  are  more  expensive  and  com- 
plicated. 


JVillis's  Improved  Seed  Sower.  This  machine,  which  was  designed  in 
the  first  instance  for  sowing  small  seed  in  gardens,  is  found  on  using  to 
sow  large  as  well  as  small  seed  to  advantage,  and  proves  to  be  one  of 
the  best  field  and  garden  implements  in  use.  It  is  particularly  adapted 
for  sowing  ruta  baga,  turnip,  &c.  The  saving  of  seed  in  the  use  of  this 
implement  is  quite  sufficient  to  pay  the  cost  of  it  in  one  season,  and  the 
seed  is  sown  more  regular  and  even. 

Hardens  Improved  Seed  Soicing  Machine.  This  is  one  of  the  best 
labor-saving  machines  in  use,  calculated  for  sowing  small  seeds  in  the 
field  or  garden. 

Patent  Curry-  Combs,  and  Brass  Teeth  Cattle  Cards.  Patent  and  com- 
mon curry-combs,  and  cards  with  brass  teeth.  No  stock  farm  should 
ever  be  kept  without  a  good  supply  of  these  articles,  and  constant  use 
being  made  of  them. 

Straw  Splitters.  This  little  implement,  which  is  plain  and  simple  in 
its  construction,  is  one  of  the  most  useful  implements,  and  should  be 
introduced  and  used  in  every  family,  in  town  and  country. 

Sato  and  Roller  Gins.  Cotton  gins  have  become  the  indispensable 
articles  of  the  cotton  planter.  A  new  roller  gin  has  been  invented  by 
a  Mr.  VVhittemore,  and  is  coming  into  very  general  use ;  it  is  readily 
worked  bj'  hand  or  horse  power. 

Stamps,  of  all  descriptions,  for  marking  and  branding  the  farmer's 
tools,  of  which  every  farmer  who  is  in  tlie  habit  of  lending  and  accom- 
modating his  neighbours  and  friends,  as  all  farmers  are  and  must  be, 
should  have  every  tool  marked  with  his  name.  This  prevents  the  loss 
of  many  tools,  and  much  inquiry  and  trouble  among  neighbours. 

Garden  Reels  and  Lines.  Very  handy  and  convenient  implements  for 
the  gardener,  in  laying  out  his  borders,  beds,  alleys,  &c. 

Pruning  Chisels  and  Saws.  Of  all  the  implements  that  are  used  on 
the  farm,  there  are  none  used  to  so  much  profit  and  advantage  as  the 
pruning  knife  and  saw.  Too  many  of  our  fruit  and  ornamental  trees 
are  suffered  to  run  to  wood ;  from  this  circumstance  we  have  less  and 
poorer  fruit. 

Manure  and  Hay  Fork.  No  one  implement  has  undergone  so  thorough 
an  investigation  and  improvement  as  the  hay  and  manure  fork.  Since 
the  first  introduction  or  use  of  these  articles,  great  improvement  has 
been  made  in  the  form  of  them,  and  the   quality  of  steel  from  which 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  337 

they  are  made.  Among  the  most  approved  manure  forka  in  use  are 
those  of  Willis,  cast  steel,  manufactured  from  one  piece,  in  which  no 
welding  is  necessary.  These  forks  have  been  in  common  use  for  many 
years.  They  are  so  well  tempered  as  to  have  that  degree  of  elasticity, 
that  they  discharge  the  manure  with  the  greatest  ease ;  they  are  in  no 
way  liable  to  clog  or  foul,  and  are  very  strong  and  durable.  Unfortu- 
nately for  this  article,  there  has  been  wreat  quantities  of  a  very  inferior 
kind  made  and  sold  in  the  form  ana  shape  of  the  true  patent  ones, 
which,  having  been  made  of  very  poor  steel  and  slighted  in  the  manu- 
facturing of  them,  has  injured  the  use  of  this  very  useful  and  almost  in- 
dispensable article. 

Budding  and  Pruning  Knives.  A  great  variety  of  budding  and  pruning 
knives  are  now  used,  of  various  forms  and  shapes  :  some  very  superior 
ones. 

Fruit  Shears.  Those  shears  which  are  attached  to  a  pole  are  for  the 
purpose  of  taking  off  fruit  from  the  extreme  branches  of  trees,  or  such 
parts  as  are  not  to  be  come  at  conveniently  in  any  other  way.  For  this 
purpose  they  are  found  to  be  very  convenient  and  useful ;  they  are  like- 
wise used  for  taking  off  scions,  &.c. 

Tree  Scrapers.  This  article,  which  is  indispensable  in  keeping  trees 
in  good  order,  should  be  used  every  season  in  removing  the  dry  and  hard 
barK  from  trees,  to  increase  a  quick  and  vigorous  growth,  and  keep  them 
in  full  bearing. 

Transplanting  Trowels  and  Forks. 

Post  Augurs  and  Post  Jlxes.    These  two  implements  are  used  for  one 
and  the  same  purpose,  that  of  mortising  posts. 
Pickaxe.    A  common  but  very  useful  article,  on  an  improved  plan. 
Post  Spooiis.     With  this  implement  and  a  common  crow-bar,  posts  are 
set  with  great  advantage  and  expedition. 

Stable  Door  Hasps,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  barn  or  stable  doors, 
gates,  &c. 

Willis's  Improved  Family  Sausage  Filler.  This  machine,  which  is 
intended  for  filling  sausages,  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  and  expedi- 
tious things  for  the  purpose  that  can  be  conceived  of.  One  man  will  do 
more  in  preparing  and  filling  sausages  with  this  machine,  than  ten  men 
can  in  the  old  manner  of  working  them. 


Fessenden's  Patent  Lamp  Boiler  and  Tea-kettle.  The  lamp  apparatus 
for  heating  water,  &c.  here  represented,  has  been  found  very  useful  in 
small  families,  and  such  persons  as  may  wish  to  prepare  tea  or  coffee 

29 


338  THE   COMPLETE  FARMER 

drink,  cook  eggs,  oysters,  &c.,  in  their  own  apartments,  without  the 
trouble  or  inconvenience  of  a  wood  or  coal  fire.  It  is  very  convenient 
in  public  houses,  coffee-houses,  and  other  places,  where  it  is  wished  to 
keep  any  hot  liquid  constantly  on  hand.  Besides  answering  all  the  pur- 
poses of  what  is  called  the  nurse  lamp,  it  may  be  made  to  boil  from  one 
pint  to  a  gallon  of  water,  by  a  method  which  in  many  cases  will  be  found 
the  most  economical  and  expeditious  which  can  be  devised. 

Description  of  the  Cut.  —  [A]  Sheet  iron  case,  in  which  the  tea- 
kettle, boiler,  &c.  may  be  placed,  removable  at  pleasure.  It  has  a  hole 
in  the  bottom,  to  admit  the  heat  of  the  lamp  to  pervade  the  bottom  and 
sides  of  the  boiler.  [B]  Lamp  with  five  or  six  wicks,  more  or  less, 
placed  when  in  use  under  said  case.  [C]  Pan  or  boiler,  which,  when 
in  use,  is  placed  in  the  sheet  iron  case.  [D]  Tea-kettle  in  its  place  for 
boiling.  [E]  A  small  sheet  iron  cylinder,  a  little  tapering,  so  as  to 
form  the  frustrura  of  a  hollow  cone.  This  is  occasionally  placed  within 
the  case,  so  as  to  surround  the  hole  in  its  bottom,  in  order  to  place  upon 
it  a  coffee-pot,  tea-pot,  flask,  tin  porringer,  or  other  small  vessel,  in  which 
it  may  be  wished  to  heat  water. 

Farnhain's  Improved  Patent  Grater  Cider  Mill.  The  improvement  in 
this  mill  is  in  grinding,  or  rather  grating  the  apples  very  fine,  so  that 
all  the  juice  is  pressed  out }  and  produces  a  greater  quantity  of  liquor 
from  the  same  quantity  of  pomace.  The  above  mills  are  in  extensive 
operation,  and  very  much  approved  of.  They  will  grind  two  bushels  of 
apples  per  minute,  and  are  in  no  way  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

With  little  alteration  it  can  be  made  one  of  the  best  vegetable  grinders, 
for  grinding  or  cutting  food  for  animals. 

Cider  Presses.  Presses  of  different  descriptions  to  correspond  with 
the  cider  mills. 

Vegetable  Cutter.  Leavitt's  improved  patent  vegetable  cutter,  for 
cutting  ruta  baga,  mangel-wurtzel,  turnips,  &c.  Cutting  those  kinds 
of  vegetables  is  found  to  be  very  beneficial  to  animals,  particularly  to 
milch  cows,  not  only  by  increasing  the  quantity,  but  the  quality  or  the 
milk.     It  is  a  very  perfect  and  complete  machine  for  the  purpose. 

Plouglishares.  Wrought  and  cast  iron  ploughshares,  of  all  sizes,  fitted 
and  prepared  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  at  all  times  ready  and  fit  for 
immediate  use. 

Patent  and  ■  Common  Horse  Phlemes.  The  patent  phleme  is  a  very 
great  improvement  on  the  common  kind,  and  in  the  hands  of  an  expe- 
rienced and  careful  person  is  used  with  perfect  safety,  and  is  very  effec- 
tual in  its  operation. 

Carter's  Patent  Guideboard.  Made  by  branding  the  letters  and  figures 
on  boards ;  when  done  in  this  manner,  are  more  legible  and  durable 
than  the  usual  mode  of  painting.  A  full  set  of  letters  and  figures  will 
be  furnished,  calculated  to  answer  all  the  purposes  for  one  town. 

Directions  for  using  the  Brands. —  The  brands  are  to  be  heated  to  a 
cherry  red,  then  applied  to  the  board,  and  guided  by  a  straight  piece 
tacked  on  to  keep  them  in  a  line.  The  board  is  then  to  be  lightly  planed 
over,  and  the  white  lead  applied  in  the  usual  manner  with  a  brush. 
The  black  letters  will  not  lose  their  brightness,  for  the  durability  of 
charcoal  is  well  known.  STANLEY  CARTER. 


FARMER'S    CALENDAR 


The  followinff  calendar  is  intended  merely  as  an  agricultural  prompter, 
noting  that  certlin  kinds  of  work  should  be  performed  about  the  time  m 
the  ylar  specified  at  the  head  of  each  article.  The  figures  refer  to  he 
pages  in  this  little  volume,  in  which  further  directions  may  be  found 
relltive  to  the  operations  which  the  season  in  general  demands  from  tlie 
diligent,  correct,  and  careful  cultivator.  ,    ..       u„  u^^  r,- 

"At  the  beginning  of  every  month,  a  good  farmer,  whether  he  has  or 
ha^  not  a  book  of  this  sort,  is  obliged  to  reflect  on  the  work  he  has  to 
perform  in  that  month:  he  ought  to  foresee  the  whole  at  once,  or  it  is 
impossible  that  he  should  make  due  provision  for  its  performance.  1 
leave  it  to  any  one  to  judge,  if  such  an  estimate  of  monthly  busmess  can 
be  gained  so  easily  without  such  an  assistance  to  the  memory  as  is  attord- 
ed  by  such  a  calendar ;  and  even  if  such  a  work  but  once  m  a  year  gives 
intimation  of  some  important  work  which  might  otherwise  have  been  tor- 
gotten,  its  worth  must  be  acknowledged.'  *  j    ,  ^      *u    iw^^  v^o. 

The  directions  in  the  following  pages,  are  intended  for  the  New  J!.ng- 
land  States,  or  about  the  latitude  of  forty-two  degrees  north,  and  the 
vicinity,  or  a  small  elevation  above  the  sea.  Allowance,  however,  should 
be  made  for  heicrht  above  the  sea,  as  well  as  for  situation  north  or  south 
of  any  particular  latitude  ;  but  we  believe  it  not  possible  to  state  with  any 
near  approach  to  precision  what  such  allowance  should  be.  Ihe  nature 
of  the  soil,  the  aspect,  the  exposure,  the  forwardness  or  backwardness,  or 
what  may  be  styled  the  general  character  of  the  season,  are  all  to  be  re- 
garded. We  will,  therefore,  not  claim  precision,  where  accuracy  is  not 
attainable.  "  Calendars,"  as  Loudon  has  well  observed,  "  should  be  con- 
sidered as  remembrancers,  never  as  directories.' 


JANUARY. 


Stock  If  cattle  are  fed  with  straw,  it  should  be  done  with  necessary 
attentions  and  limitations.  The  celebrated  Arthur  Young  observed  tliut 
"  the  best  farmers  in  Norfolk  are  generally  agreed,  that  cattle  should  eat 
no  straw,  unless  it  be  cut  into  chafi"  mixed  with  hay  ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
that  they  should  be  fed  with  something  better,  and  have  the  straw  thrown 
under  them  to  be  trodden  into  dung  :"  and  I  am  much  inclined  to  believe, 
that  in  most,  if  not  in  all  cases,  this  maxim  will  prove  a  just  one.  bee 
that  your  cows  are  of  the  best  breed  Page  38.  Give  them  roots  as  well 
as  hav,  and  they  will  give  you  more  than  an  equivalent  m  niilk  tor  their 
extra  keep.     Page  40.     Provide  pure   water  for  your  milch  cows,  and 

*  Young's  British  Fanner's  Calendar. 


340  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

not  oblige  thein  to  go  a  mile,  more  or  less,  after  it,  manuring  the  high- 
way, and  running  the  gauntlet  of  dogs,  teams,  the  horse  and  his  rider,  the 
eleigh  and  its  driver,  with  more  annoyances  than  Bonaparte  met  with 
in  his  retreat  from  Moscow.  See  also  that  the  master-beasts  do  not 
tyrannize  over  their  weaker  brethren ;  and  if  any  are  inclined  to  domineer, 
take  them  into  close  custody,  and  deprive  them  of  the  liberty  of  the  yard, 
till  they  will  give  indemnity  for  the  past,  and  security  for  the  future. 
Cut  or  chaff  your  hay,  straw,  corn-tops,  bottoms,  &c.,  with  one  of  Willis's 
or  some  other  straw-cutter,  to  be  found  at  Break  &  Co.'s  Agricultural 
Warehouse,  No.  52  North  Market  street,  Boston,  or  some  other  place. 
You  may  also  make  use  of  Colonel  Jaques's  mixture,  (page  48,)  without 
charge  for  the  prescription.  If  you  give  your  cows  good  hay,  roots,  and 
comfortable  lodging,  you  may  make  as  good  butter  in  winter  as  in  summer, 
and  become  rich  by  sending  to  market  the  product  of  your  dairy.  Pages 
54,  87,  88,  &c. 

FEBRUARY. 

Attend  particularly  to  cows  which  have  calved,  or  are  about  to  calve, 
as  well  as  to  their  offspring.  You  know,  or  should  know,  what  time 
your  cows  may  be  expected  to  produce  their  young,  by  means  pointed 
out  page  42,  where  you  may  find  a  receipt  for  those  cows  which  need  to 
be  doctored,  that  they  may  stop  giving  milk.  You  will  find  observations 
on  rearing  and  fattening  calves,  pages  54,  &c.  to  page  61.  Your  ewes 
and  lambs  will  now  require  that  care  and  attention  which  is  indispensa- 
ble to  make  sheep  husbandry  profitable.  Page  212.  The  way  to  doctor 
lambs  to  advantage  is,  to  give  good  food,  and  a  plenty  of  it,  to  their  moth- 
ers. Half  a  gill  of  Indian  corn  a  day  to  each  ewe  before  yeaning,  and 
about  two  quarts  per  day  of  potatoes,  turnips,  or  other  roots,  when  they 
have  lambs  to  nurse,  will  make  your  sheep  and  lambs  healthy,  as  well  as 
their  owner  wealthy.  But  if  you  half  starve  your  sheep,  you  will  quite 
kill  your  lambs.  You  will  continue  to  cut,  split,  and  pile  wood  in  your 
woodhouse,  till  you  have  enough  to  last  at  least  two  3'ears.  It  is  very 
bad.  economy  to  be  obliged  to  leave  your  work  in  haying  or  harvesting, 
to  draw  every  now  and  then  a  little  green  wood  to  cook  with,  which  is 
about  as  fit  for  that  purpose  as  a  brickbat  for  a  pincushion,  or  a  lump  of  ice 
for  a  warming-pan. 

MARCH. 

You  may  sow  grass  seed  either  as  soon  as  the  snow  is  off  the  ground, 
or,  as  some  say,  in  August  or  September.  You  may  see  the  question 
relative  to  the  time  for  this  purpose  discussed,  pages  22,  24.  Be  sure  to 
use  seed  enough,  say  about  twelve  pounds  of  clover  and  one  peck  of 
herd's  grass  [timothy]  to  the  acre.  Page  24.  If  you  did  not  sow  grass 
seed  in  autumn  with  vpinter  grain,  you  may  now  sow  it,  and  even  harrow 
it  in.  Though  a  few  plants  will  be  torn  up,  the  grain  will  on  the  whole 
receive  benefit  from  being  harrowed  in  the  spring.  Before  the  spring 
work  presses  hard  upon  j'ou,  it  will  be  well  to  employ  your  boys,  under 
your  superintendence,  to  train  your  steers  or  calves  and  colts  to  the  yoke, 
saddle,  or  harness;  for  which  you  may  see  some  excellent  directions,  by 
Mr.  James  Walker,  page  64.  Top-dress  winter  grain.  Top-dressings 
should  not  be  used  in  the  fall  for  winter  grain,  because  they  would  be 
apt  to  make  the  young  plants  come  forward  too  fast,  and  be  the  more 
liable  to  be  winter-killed.     Page  178.     Attend  to  fences,  page  204,  and 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  341 

to  drains.  Page  282.  By  often  changing  the  direction  of  your  water- 
courses, you  may  render  your  mowing  even,  and  prevent  one  part  from 
becoming  too  rank  and  lodging  before  tlie  other  part  is  fit  to  cut. 


APRIL. 

Plovghing.  Light  sandy  soils  had  better  be  ploughed  in  the  spring, 
and  no^  late  in  autumn,  lest  they  become  too  porous,  and  are  washed 
away  bj^  the  rains  and  floods  of  fall  and  winter.  For  general  rules  on 
this  subject,  see  page  267,  «fcc.  It  is  best  to  sow  spring  wheat  as  soon  as 
it  can  well  be  got  into  the  ground.  The  soil  and  preparation  should  be 
the  same  as  for  winter  wheat.  Page  107.  Sow  barley  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  sufficiently  dry.  Page  134.  Sow  oats.  Page  131.  Spring 
r^'e  is  cultivated  in  the  same  manner  as  winter  rye.  Page  124.  Field 
peas  as  well  as  garden  peas  make  an  excellent  crop.  Page  147.  Beans 
are  also  highly  worth  the  judicious  cultivator's  particular  attention.  Page 
152.  Plant  some  potatoes  of  an  early  sort  on  early  ground,  to  be  used  in 
July  and  August,  as  food  for  your  hogs,  that  you  may  commence  fatten- 
ing them  early  in  the  season.  Page  258.  Potatoes  in  small  quantities  at 
a  time  are  good  food  for  horses  and  oxen,  as  well  as  most  other  animals, 
especially  in  spring.  They  will  go  further,  if  steamed  or  boiled,  but  when 
given  raw,  they  are  useful  as  well  for  physic  as  for  food,  being  of  a  laxa- 
tive and  cooling  quality.  It  is  now  about  the  time  to  sow  flax,  page  99, 
and  hemp.  Page  92.  Every  tool,  utensil,  &c.,  which  will  be  wanted  for 
tlie  labors  of  the  season,  should  now  (if  not  done  before)  be  critically  in- 
spected, thoroughly  repaired,  and  such  new  ones  of  the  best  quality  added 
as  will  probably  be  needed.  We  know  of  no  place  where  every  want  of 
that  kind  can  be  better  supplied  than  at  Breck  &  Co.'s  Agricultural 
Warehouse,  No.  .5'J  North  ftlarket  street,  Boston;  connected  with  which 
is  a  seed  store,  where  may  be  procured  the  best  of  seeds  both  for  garden 
and  field  culture. 

MAY. 

Attend  to  your  pastures.  Do  not  turn  cattle  into  pasture  ground  too 
early  in  the  spring,  but  let  tlie  grass  have  a  chance  to  start  a  little  before 
it  is  bitten  close  to  the  soil.  If  your  pastures  are  large,  it  will  be  good 
economy  to  divide  them  as  stated  page  285.  Cleanse  your  cellars,  as 
well  as  the  rest  of  your  premises,  from  all  putrescent  and  other  ofl^ensive 
and  unwholesome  substances.  Plant  Indian  corn  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
of  the  white  oak  are  as  big  as  the  ears  of  a  mouse.  Page  25.  Not  only 
Indian  corn,  but  peas,  oats,  buckwheat,  and  probably  most  other  seeds, 
are  benefited  by  wetting  them  in  water  just  before  sowing,  and  rolling 
them  in  plaster.  Plant  potatoes  for  your  principal  crop.  Page  258. 
Sow  millet.  Page  137.  Sow  lucerne  on  land  thoroughly  prepared,  and 
keep  it  free  from  weeds.  Page  16.  Declare  war  against  insects.  Page 
302.  The  artillery  for  the  engagement  may  be  elder  juice,  or  decoction 
of  elder,  especially  of  the  dwarf  kind,  decoction  of  tobacco,  quicklime, 
lime-water,  soot,  unleached  ashes,  strong  lye,  tar  or  turpentine  water,- 
soap-suds,  ifcc.  Dissolve  about  two  pounds  of  potash,  in  seven  quarts  of 
water,  and  apply  the  solution  to  your  fruit-trees  with  a  painter's  brush, 
taking  care  not  to  touch  the  leaves  or  buds.  A  lot  of  land  well  stocked 
with  clover  is  wanted  by  every  good  cultivator  for  pasturing  swine. 
Page  159. 

29* 


342  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 


JUNE. 

Summer-made  Manure  demands  attention.  Most  farmers  yard  their 
cows  at  night,  through  the  summer ;  their  manure  should  be  collected 
into  a  heap,  in  some  convenient  part  of  the  barn-yard,  to  prevent  its 
being  wasted  by  the  sun  and  rains.  A  few  minutes'  attention  in  the 
morning,  when  the  cows  are  turned  out  to  pasture,  would  collect  a  heap 
of  several  loads  in  a  season,  ready  for  your  grass  grounds  in  autumn. 
Dress  your  Indian  corn  and  potatoes,  thoroughly  extirpating  weeds,  and 
please  to  place  a  handful  of  ashes  or  plaster,  or  a  mixture  of  both,  on 
3-our  hills  of  corn  and  potatoes.  These  substances  are  commonly  applied 
before  the  first  or  second  hoeing.  But  aslies  or  quicklime  (which  is  also 
an  excellent  application  for  corn)  will  have  a  better  effect  in  preventing 
worms  if  laid  on  before  the  corn  is  up.  Be  careful  to  save  all  your  soap- 
suds afler  each  washing,  as  they  answer  an  excellent  purpose  when  ap- 
plied to  fruit-trees,  both  as  manure  and  as  an  antidote  to  insects.  "  Plas- 
ter or  live  ashes  sown  upon  j'our  pasture  grounds,  will  not  onl^'  repay  a 
handsome  profit  by  increasing  the  value  of  your  feed,  by  bringing  in  the 
finer  grasses,  such  as  white  clover,  &c.,  but  will  greatly  improve  your 
lands  for  a  potato  fallow,  and  a  succeeding  wheat  crop,  whenever  you 
may  wish  to  take  advantage  of  a  routine  of  crops." 


JULY. 

Hay-making.  Page  275.  Make  as  much  of  your  hay  as  possible  in 
the  early  part  of  the  season,  as  there  is  at  that  time  a  greater  probability 
of  your  being  favored  with  fur  weather.  More  rain  falls  on  an  average 
in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  or  afler  the  15th  of  July,  than  before.  If 
the  weather  is  so  unfavorable  that  hay  cannot  be  thoroughly  cured,  the 
application  of  from  four  to  eight  quarts  of  salt  to  the  ton  is  recommend- 
ed. In  this  way  it  can  be  saved  in  a  much  greener  state,  and  the  benefit 
derived  from  the  salt  is  many  times  its  value.  Another  good  method 
of  saving  green  or  wet  hay,  is  that  of  mixing  layers  of  dry  straw  in  the 
innw  or  stack.  Thus  tlie  strength  of  the  grass  is  absorbed  by  the  straw, 
and  the  cattle  will  eagerly  devour  the  mixture. 

Harvesting.  Page  27-J.  The  time  in  which  your  grain  crop  should 
be  cut,  is  when  ihe  straw  begins  to  shrink,  and  becomes  white  about 
half  an  inch  below  the  ear  ;  but  if  a  blight  or  rust  has  struck  wheat  or 
rye,  it  is  best  to  cut  it  immediately,  even  if  the  grain  be  in  the  milky 
state.     Barley,  however,  should  stand  till  perfectly  ripe. 


^  AUGUST. 

Please  to  attend  in  season  to  preserving  your  sheep  from  the  cestrus 
Otis,  or  fly  which  causes  worms  in  their  heads.  Page  223.  This  may 
»be  done  by  keeping  the  noses  of  the  animals  constantly  smirched  with 
tar  from  the  middle  of  August  till  the  latter  part  of  September.  In 
order  to  accomplish  this,  it  has  been  recommended  to  mix  a  little  fine 
salt  with  tar,  and  place  it  under  cover,  where  the  sheep  can  have  access 
to  it,  and  they  will  keep  their  noses  sufficiently  smirched  with  tar  to 
prevent  the  insect  from  attacking  them.  Destroy  thistles,  which  some 
say  may  be  done  by  letting  them  grow  till  in  full  bloom,  and  then  cutting 


AND  RURAL  ECONOMIST.  343 

them  with  a  scythe  about  an  inch  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
Btera  being  hollow,  the  rains  and  dews  descend  into  the  heart  of  the  plant, 
and  it  soon  dies.  Select  the  ripest  and  most  plump  seeds  from  such 
plants  as  are  most  forward  and  thrifty,  and  you  will  improve  your  breeds 
of  vegetables  by  means  similar  to  those  which  have  been  successful  in 
improving  the  breeds  of  neat  cattle,  sheep,  &c.  As  soon  as  your  har- 
vesting is  finished,  you  will  take  advantage  of  this  hot  and  dry  weather, 
to  search  your  premises  for  mines  of  manure,  such  as  peat,  page  200, 
marl,  page  196,  mud,  «fcc.,  which  often  give  unsuspected  value  to 
swamps.  Now  is  also  a  good  season  to  work  at  draining.  Page  282. 
You  may  drain  certain  marshes  on  your  premises,  which  will  afford  you 
better  soil  than  you  now  cultivate,  cause  your  land  to  be  more  healthy, 
and  the  earth  taken  from  the  ditches  will  make  valuable  deposits  in  your 
cow-yard  and  pig-sty. 


SEPTEMBER. 

A  correctly  calculating  cultivator  will  make  even  his  hogs  labor  for  a 
livelihood.  This  may  be  done  by  throwing  into  their  pens  potato-tops, 
weeds,  brakes,  turf,  loam,  &c.,  which  these  capital  workmen  will  man- 
ufacture into  manure  of  the  first  quality.  Page  181.  You  cannot  sow 
winter  rye  too  early  in  September.  If  it  be  sowed  early,  its  roots  will 
obtain  such  hold  of  the  soil  before  winter,  that  they  will  not  be  liable  to 
be  thrown  out  and  killed  by  frost.  Page  124.  It  may  be  sowed  early 
to  great  advantage  in  order  to  yield  green  food  for  cattle  and  sheep,  par- 
ticularly the  latter,  in  the  spring.  Winter  wheat,  likewise,  cannot  be 
sowed  too  early  in  September.  Page  107.  Attend  to  the  barn-yard,  and 
see  that  it  has  a  proper  shape  for  a  manure  manufactory,  as  well  as  other 
accommodations,  adapted  to  its  various  uses.  Page  74.  You  may  as 
well  have  a  hole  in  your  pocket,  for  the  express  purpose  of  losing  your 
money,  as  a  drain  to  lead  away  the  wash  of  your  farm-yard.  True,  it 
may  spread  over  your  grass  ground,  and  be  a  source  of  some  fertility  to 
your  premises,  but  the  chance  is  that  most  of  it  will  be  lost  in  a  high- 
way, or  neighbouring  stream. 


OCTOBER. 

Ploughing.  Page  267.  Stiff,  hard,  cloggy  land  intended  to  be  tilled 
should  be  ploughed  in  autumn.  Fall  ploughing  saves  time  and  labor  in 
the  spring,  when  cattle  are  weak,  and  the  hurry  of  the  work  peculiar  to 
that  season  presses  on  the  cultivator.  A  light  sandy  soil,  however, 
should  not  be  disturbed  by  fall  ploughing,  but  lie  to  settle  and  consoli- 
date through  tlie  winter.  Select  your  corn  intended  for  planting  next 
season  from  the  field,  culling  fine,  fair,  sound  ears  from  such  stocks  as 
produce  two  or  more  ears,  taking  the  best  of  the  bunch.  Page  29.  You 
will  consider  well  which  is  the  best  method  of  harvesting  corn,  and 
adopt  one  of  the  methods  mentioned  by  Judge  Buel.  Page  28.  If  the 
husks  and  bottoms  of  your  corn,  when  stowed  away  for  winter,  are 
sprinkled  with  a  strong  solution  of  salt  in  water,  (taking  care  not  to  use 
such  a  quantity  of  the  solution  as  to  cause  mould,)  and  when  dealt  out 
are  cut  fine  with  a  straw-cutter,  they  will  make  first-rate  fodder.  Do 
not  feed  hogs  with  hard  corn  without  steeping,  grinding,  or  boiling  it. 
The  grain  will  go  much  the  farther  for  undergoing  some  or  all  of  these 


344  THE   COMPLETE   FARMER 

operations ;  and  if  a  due  degree  of  fermentation  is  superadded,  so  much 
the  better. 


NOVEMBER. 

In  many  situations  it  will  be  excellent  management  to  rake  up  all  the 
leaves  of  trees,  and  the  mould  which  has  been  produced  by  their  decay, 
which  can  be  procured  at  a  reasonable  expense,  and  cart  and  spread 
them  in  the  barn-yard  as  a  layer,  to  absorb  the  liquid  manure  from  your 
cattle.  Likewise  it  would  be  well  to  place  quantities  of  them  under 
cover,  in  situations  where  you  can  easily  obtain  them  in  winter  to  use  as 
litter  to  your  stables,  &c.  They  do  not  rot  easily,  but  they  serve  the 
purpose  of  little  sponges  to  imbibe  and  retain  liquid  manure,  ana  by 
their  use  you  may  supply  your  crops  with  much  food  for  plants  which 
would  otherwise  be  lost.  Attend  with  diligence  and  punctuality  to  the 
wants  of  tlie  four-footed  tenants  of  your  barn,  hog-sty,  «Sic.  Do  not 
undertake  to  winter  more  stock  than  you  have  abundant  means  of  pro- 
viding fur.  When  young  animals  are  pinched  for  food  at  an  earli'  period 
of  their  growth,  they  never  thrive  so  well  afterwards,  nor  make  so  good 
stock.  See  tliat  you  have  good  stalls,  stables,  &c.,  page  236  ;  cow- 
houses, page  43  ;  a  proper  implement  for  cutting  hay  and  straw,  page 
48;  an  apparatus  for  cooking  food  for  cattle  and  swine,  page  49.  You 
may  also  carry  out  and  spread  compost,  soot,  ashes,  &c.,  on  such  of 
your  mowing  grounds  as  stand  in  great  need  of  .manure.  Though  some 
say  that  the  best  time  for  top-dressing  grass  land  is  immediately  after 
liaying  :  any  time  will  do  when  the  ground  is  free  from  snow,  and  the 
grass  not  so  high  as  to  be  injured  by  cattle's  treading  on  it. 


DECEMBER. 

Woodland.  We  think  tliat  cultivators  may  derive  advantage  from 
attending  to  the  observations  by  the  Hon.  John  Welles,  relative  to  wood- 
lots,  the  manner  of  cutting,  them  over,  &c.  Page  301.  We  advise 
every  farmer,  and  his  help,  «fcc.,  so  to  treat  domestic  animals  that  they 
may  be  tarne  and  familiar.  It  is  said  of  Bakewell,  a  famous  EngHsh 
breeder  of  cattle,  that  b}'  proper  management  he  caused  his  stock  to  be 
very  gentle.  His  bulls  would  stand  still  to  be  handled,  and  were  driven 
from  field  to  field  with  a  small  switch.  His  cattle  were  always  fat, 
which  ho  said  was  owing  to  the  breed  as  well  as  keep.  Colts  should  also 
always  be  kept  tame  and  familiar,  and  you  may  then  train  them  to  sad- 
dle or  harness  without  danger  or  difficulty.  Page  CI.  The  farmer 
should  obtain  his  year's  stock  of  fuel  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible, 
and  before  the  depth  of  snow  in  the  woodlands  renders  it  difficult  to 
traverse  them  by  a  team.  You  may,  when  the  ground  is  frozen,  cut 
and  draw  wood  from  swamps,  which  are  inaccessible  for  cattle  in  warm 
weather.  If  you  cut  wood  with  a  wisii  that  the  stumps  should  sprout, 
let  it  be  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  and  before  the  buds  swell  in  the  spring. 
[See  Gen.  Newhall's  statement,  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  X.  p.  230.] 
The  Rev.  Mr.  Elliot  wisely  recommended,  when  bushy  ground,  full  of 
strong  roots  is  to  be  ditched,  beginning  the  ditch  in  the  winter,  when 
the  ground  is  frozen  two  or  three  inches  deep.  The  surface  may  be 
chopped  into  pieces  by  a  broad  axe,  with  a  long  helve,  and  the  ditch 
completed  in  warm  weather.     The  farmer  may,  probably,  hit  on  a  good 


AND  RURAL   ECONOMIST.  345 

time  for  this  work  in  December,  when  there  happens  to  be  no  snow,  and 
when  it  will  not  interfere  with  other  farming  business.  When  the  sea- 
son has  become  so  severe  that  little  can  be  done  abroad,  much  may  be 
done  relative  to  farming  operations,  and  other  good  works,  by  the  fire- 
side, in  contriving  the  proper  course  of  crops  for  each  field,  settling  ac- 
counts, reading  useful  and  entertaining  books,  and  laying  the  foundation, 
by  mental  culture,  for  the  usefulness  and  respectability  of  those  who 
compose  the  fanner's  family. 


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